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33d Congress, 2d Session.
SENATE.
Ex. Doc, No. 42.
HHAh
REPORT
COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS
FOR THE YEAR 1854,
AGRICULTURE,
\ JAN 23 1885 WASHINGTON:
BEVERLEY TUCKER, PRINTER 1855.
LETTER
OF THE
COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS,
TRANSMITTING
The Agricultural portion of his report for the year 1854.
February 8, 1855. — Ordered, That there be printed, in addition to the usual number, fifty- five thousand copies of the Eeport of the Commissioner of Patents which relates to Agricul- ture, five thousand of which shall be for the use of the Commissioner of Patents.
United States Patent Office,
February 6, 1855.
Sir : Agreeably to the design of Congress, as indicated by the ap- propriation of the 4th of August, 1854, for the collection of agricultural statistics, and the procurement and distribution of cuttings and seeds, I have the honor to transmit herewith the Agricultural portion of my annual report.
I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
CHARLES MASON,
Commissioner, Hon. J. D. Bright,
President of the Senate,
PRELIMINARY REMARKS,
EXPERIMENTS WITH SEEDS.
A considerable share of the money appropriated by Congress for Agricultural purposes has been devoted to the procurement and distri- bution of seeds, roots, and cuttings. It was believed that in this man- ner the greatest benefit could be realized, and the intention of Congress most fully complied with.
A prime object has been the introduction and naturalization of new and useful vegetable products, hitherto unknown in the United States* Measures have been taken to procure from every quarter of the globe such seeds, plants, roots, and cuttings as would admit of useful and successful cultivation in this country. These, as far as they have already been received, have been placed in the hands of persons most: likely to try the experiment fully and fairly. It is confidently hoped that the number of those products which contribute to the comfort and sustenance of the human family ma}r, by this means, be considerably augmented. Many of the experiments made with this view will pro- bably prove abortive ; but if, out of the whole number tried, a single one shall have proved as eminently successful and useful as the potato or the rice plant have done, at a former period, or, what is more pro- bable, if many of these new products shall prove capable of successful cultivation, and become useful in a limited degree, the trouble and ex- pense attendant upon making all these experiments will be richly com- pensated. The advantage resulting from the introduction of a new commodity of average utility for consumption or commerce is of more value to the country than the acquisition of a new province.
From the eastern coast of Asia, much may reasonably be expected. Having been heretofore little explored, its peculiar products are almost
VI PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
unknown ; possessing a climate, which, from natural causes, greatly resembles our own ; its vegetable kingdom, in its general type, being like that met with upon the Atlantic coast of this continent, which differs so much from that found on the western parts of Europe and America.
A considerable number of rare seeds, roots, and plants have already been obtained from China and Japan, and means have been adopted to increase that number hereafter. Some of these have been brought directly from those countries, through the care and attention of Commo- dore Perry, and various other individuals. ' Others have been obtained indirectly through European channels. They have all been placed in good hands, and as widely disseminated as practicable. It is hoped that they will prove productive of great benefit.
But the attention of the office has not been exclusively directed to the introduction of seeds or plants altogether new. Much care has been taken to obtain and distribute improved varieties of the products of this country already known and cultivated.
When it is recollected how much the value of our live stock has been increased by similar means, the hope of improving our grains, grasses, leguminous plants or esculents, by importation from foreign lands, will not be deemed chimerical. The importance of such a measure seemed to be sufficient to justify the sending of an agent to Europe last autumn, in order to make the best selection of seeds, and procure them direct from the growers. Consequently, a large quantity of valuable seeds of the last year's growth was procured and disseminated throughout all portions of the Union. It is confidently expected that this will result greatly to the benefit of the agriculturists of the country. Simi- lar benefits are also hoped for from the distribution of choice varieties of seeds produced in particular sections of the United States, and not generally known in others. For instance, the number of bushels of corn which, with a given amount of labor and expense, can be grown upon an acre of ground, depends in no small degree upon the kind of seed planted. Some varieties are capable of producing fifty per cent, more than others. Even an increase of a single bushel to the acre, where the soil and cost of culture are the same, is a matter of very great consequence. If, by any course of husbandry, an annual perma- nent net increase of one dollar in the value of the product of every acre of ground can be secured, such a result would in fact be augmenting the real intrinsic value of all the land so treated, more than ten dollars per acre. A proper selection of seed will in most cases effect much more than this. How well may every farmer, then, find himself repaid
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. VII
for all the pains bestowed in making such selections, and how useful will be the means which will increase in the greatest practicable degree the facilities for doing this on the widest possible scale !
Accordingly, great pains have been taken to ascertain what varieties of corn, wheat, or other agricultural product have been found most prolific and valuable. These have been procured and disseminated in small parcels in every portion of the country where they were thought likely to be advantageously cultivated. In this manner, they became tested as to their adaptation to the soil and climate of those portions, and, where successful, their gradual introduction will naturally follow.
The small quantity in which some of the seeds have been distributed has sometimes been objected to. Instead of sending a gill of wheat or other small grain to one individual for the purpose of experiment, some persons have supposed that a more liberal distribution— perhaps a bushel to each individual — would be attended with better results. That there are strong arguments on each side of this question is undeniable 5 bit the preponderance seems clearly in favor of the course pursued. The smaller packages, weighing but two or three ounces, can be con- veniently distributed through the mails. By this means, too, the oppor- tunity of experimenting can be placed within the reach of several hun- dred times as many persons than would be if distributed by the bushel. A. small amount will, in most instances, test the adaptation of the grain to any particular soil and climate as effectually as would be done in a larger quantity. The testing on a more extensive scale is only at most postponed for a year or two, and the experience required during that time is not entirely lost. Failure sometimes results from unknown and accidental causes. These are more likely to prevent success in one instance than in many. Although the person who should obtain a bushel of choice wheat for trial might be induced to take more pains with it than he who had but a gill; still, out of the hundreds who might obtain the latter quantity, some might be found who would take more pains than either. Indeed, it is to be hoped that when a proper interest is created in this subject, a large proportion of those who shall receive one of these small packages of grain will be induced to take special pains in its cultivation for the first year or two — more, in fact, than could be expected of one who had a bushel or two in his possession.
The seeds should be sown in drills at liberal intervals, well culti vated, and the choicest heads selected with which to pursue a similar course the succeeding year. Is it not highly probable that by follow- ing such a course for a few years, a vast improvement might be made
Vlll PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
in even the very best varieties of wheat with which we are acquainted? The remainder of the produce of each year's cultivation might also be sown in drills on good ground and carefully cultivated. When ripe, let a few of the choicest heads be selected from this growth, and reserved to be planted in drills in the same manner on the following year. This second growth will constitute class number one of the second crop. The remainder of the first year's growth, after removing; all small and defective heads, should also be planted in drills and cultivated, and would constitute class number two of the second crop. On the third year, class number one of the second crop should be treated in the same way as class number one of the first crop had been ; and thus from year to year, a small selection being made from the first class of the previous year's growth, a new family will be com- menced somewhat superior to any of its predecessors. A judicious system of hybridizing might still further increase the improvement, and would be well worthy of an experiment. On the third year, class number two of the second crop, which would probably have increased to two bushels or more, may be thinly sown broadcast, or, what would be better, by a good drill. The produce of this sowing might thence- forth be used as seed for field use, and would be found vastly improved in character and constitution. It would constitute an improved variety for those to experiment with who wish to do so, with larger parcels than those furnished by the Patent Office. When thickly sown it would probably produce large crops of fine wheat for a few years, and then relapse into an ordinary variety; but by pursuing the course above recommended, the vigor of the plant and its product might be constantly kept up, and its quality improved. At least, the probability of such a result is sufficiently great to justify experiments of the char- acter above suggested. The method pursued of distributing the grains in small parcels would be well calculated to enable many persons to try such experiments.
In fact, it is highly probable that extraordinary varieties of any grain might in such a manner be readily obtained. By selecting a choice head of wheat from almost any field — by drilling, cultivation, and con- tinued selection — by a judicious system of hybridizing to obtain a sim- ilar advantage to that derived from crossing with animals, — if success is not finally attained, it would be contrary to all experience in analo- gous cases. By pursuing a course similar to this, have all the improve- ments in live stock been made. By like means, choice varieties in corn and other products have been obtained. Should not a similar result be expected from this mode of treating the small grains?
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. IX
Experience is ready to give this question a satisfactory answer. A grain of wheat is found in the crop of a wild goose, another in the chest of tea from China, and a third by accident vegetates in a cleft in the rocks, which shoot up alone into a vigorous growth. These become respectively the progenitors of the " Goose wheat," the " Tea wheat," and the " Rock wheat." For a few years, each acquires a great rep- utation in the agricultural world, and then relapses into mediocrity. What is the explanation of these phenomena? Why, simply that each of these grains of wheat was originally nothing very extraordinary ; but growing alone at first, and being afterwards carefully planted and cul- tivated for a few years, they acquired a sturdiness of growth, constitu- tion, and reproductive power, as superior to that of the densely crowded broadcast-sown wheat of the field, as the physical health and strength of the farmer, who labors daily in the open air, is greater than that of the pent up denizen of the crowded city. It has had plenty of room, air, and light, as well as proper cultivation and food.
Having thus attained a point of comparative excellence, it is deemed something extraordinary. Afterwards, when employed in ordinary field-culture, when sown broadcast and left untended, having neither the room nor the. food to enable the plant to attain its full development, it relapses into its original condition. Any other vegetable or animal product would be subject to similar changes under like treatment.
It is therefore earnestly suggested to every one who has the requisite taste and ability that he should undertake a course of experiments of the kind above contemplated, or any other which his own judgment may dictate, with a view not only of testing choice varieties of such seeds as he may procure, but also of improving the qualities of those veiy varieties. If the seeds distributed through this office can fall in small parcels into the hands of persons, in all sections of the country, who will pursue the course herein suggested, it may reasonably be expected that the most substantial benefits will result from such a course. C. M*
REPORT
SEEDS AND CUTTINGS EECENTLY INTRODUCED INTO THE
UNITED STATES,
United States Patent Office,
February 5, 1855.
Sir : Agreeably to your suggestion, herewith I furnish such inform- ation relative to the nature, origin, culture preparation, and uses of the principal seeds, cuttings, &c, imported or introduced into this country within the last two years, as might prove beneficial or accept- able to a great body of our agriculturists, who may have received them for experiment. I regret that I am not able to report at length on many of the products, as they are quite as important, perhaps, as those which are more fully treated. I beg leave to add, that there are numerous useful products in Europe and other distant parts, that never have found their way into this country, which, I am persuaded, might be cultivated with a fair chance of success. The time for believing that the exclusive possession of any benefit contributes solely to the privilege or prosperity of any particular country or kingdom, has gone by; and the principles of free and universal intercourse and exchange are now conceded to constitute the surest foundation for the happiness of nations. This is so obviously true in matters of this sort, that it cannot for a moment be doubted. Hence it may be inferred that there is ample room for exertion on the part of our general govern- ment, as well as of States or individuals, to increase our agricultural and botanical riches, more especially those products which so conspic- uously and permanently add to our useful and economical resources.
Among the foreign products which have more recently been imported or introduced, and distributed for experiment, and which appeared to be susceptible of profitable cultivation in this country, I would instance the following :
CEREALS AND OTHER PLANTS, CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FARINACEOUS SEEDS, STRAW, OR HAULM.
Turkish Flint Wheat, from Mount Olympus, in Asia; a fall variety, with rather large, long, flinty berries do very dark-colored, and pos-
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XI
sesslng remarkable properties for long keeping in a moist climate, or for transportation by sea without kiln-drying. It has proved itself both hardy and prolific in the Middle States, and its culture deserves to be extended. The spikes are of good length and size, having only a light beard.
Algerian Flint Wheat, from the province of Oran. This variety has a remarkably large berry, rather dark-colored, and weighing 70 pounds to a bushel. From a sample sown in the valley of Virginia, in Novem- ber last, it yielded at the rate of 35 bushels to the acre, a berry equal in size and weight to the original. The spikes are large, bearing an enormous beard.
Piihusian Flint Wheat, from the island of I vie a; another fall variety, resembling the Algerian, but having larger berries, varying in color from light to dark.
Syrian Spring Wheat, from the " Farm of Abraham," at the foot of Mount Carmel, in the Holy Land. The berry of this variety resembles that of the last preceding, and is reputed to have matured in sixty days after sowing.
Cape Wheat, from the Cape of Good Hope, procured by Commodore Perry, of the Japan Expedition. This is a beautiful light-colored wheat, slightly flinty in its character, and doubtless produces an excel- lent flour. It probably will do much better at the South than at the North, if sown in autumn, unless it should prove to be a spring wheat. If successful, it will be liable to degenerate, unless the seed is often replenished or changed.
Spanish Spring Wheat, (Trigo can deal,) from Alicante; a beautiful variety, of unsurpassable whiteness, and is reputed to have ripened in less than ninety days after sowing. It will doubtless succeed well as a winter wheat at the South, and a March or spring variety at the North. The berry is rather long, plump, and slightly flinty in its character. The flour is of unrivalled whiteness, and is celebrated in Spain as entering into the composition of candeal bread (pan candeal.)
White Hungarian Wheat, (Ble blanc de Hongrie, of the French,) from the south of France. The spikes of this variety are white, of medium length, very compact, and square-like, terminating abruptly, or not tapering to the extremity; chaff, smooth and thin; spikelets, containing four grains, which are quite large, short and plump, or rounded, white, and slightly transparent. Weight, 66 pounds to the bushel. It is reputed to be about a week longer in ripening than other sorts, but from its superior qualities it well deserves a trial in this country, as a
Xll PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
fall or winter wheat at the South, and as a March or spring variety at the North.
Red-chaff White Wheat, from England, having a very large, short, rounded berry, generally soft, but often transparent. It is rather tender, and probably would not succeed as a fall wheat north of Virginia.
White Neapolitan Wheat, (Richelle blanche de Naples,) from the south of France, where it is much cultivated. The spikes are long, but not very compact; terminal spikelets, having short awns from one- fourth of an inch to an inch in length ; chaff, delicately tinged with a dull yellow or copper color; grains, large, considerably elongated, and generally of a yellowish-white color. It has the disadvantage of ripening late, and is believed to be too tender for the North. Possibly, it may prove to be a March or spring wheat, if sown early in the Middle States or at the South.
Girling's Prolific Wheat, from England; a very prolific fall variety, with a large, short, plump, brown berry, bat inclined to be soft. Like the Red- chaff White, it is thought to be tender, and unsuited for the Northern States.
White Chilian Wheat, from Santiago de Chili ; a beautiful variety, with large, rounded, plump, white grains, resembling those of the Red* chaff White from England, and, like which, it is believed to be too tender for the North.
Saumur Spring Wheat, (Ble de saumur de mars,) originally from the valleys of Anjou, a southeastern department of France, and is a very remarkable variety for fall or winter-sowing. The berry is rather soft, though full, of a reddish color, and much esteemed by farmers for its early maturity, which perfects itself some days before the ordinary sorts. As its name implies, it may also be sown in March, which will add to its value in this country as a spring wheat. If sown in autumn, it probably would succeed in the middle or central range of States.
Early Noe Wheat, (Ble de Pile de Noe,) introduced into the central part of France by M. de Noe, and is commonly known there under the name of Ble bleu. From its hardy and productive nature, it is gradu- ally superseding the Saumur wheat in the high latitudes of Paris, and is much sought after on account of its precocity. As this wheat and the preceding variety have the property of ripening some days before the common sorts, if they succeed in our climate in this respect, a great point will be attained. A single week thus gained in ripening would often secure the crop from injury by the try or rust, aside from the advantages to be acquired from an early market. It would proba- bly succeed well as a spring wheat if sown early.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. Xlll
Geja Wheat, from the south of Spain ; with a large, moderately long, full berry, of a brown color, rather inclined to be flinty. It probably would be too tender to sow at the North as a fall wheat, although it might succeed if sown early in the spring.
Large Northern Prolific Rye, from Germany ; with a large grain, and doubtless will be suited to the Middle, if not to the Northern States.
Spanish Barley, from the south of Spain ; with a full, well-filled grain, which promises well.
Common Black Oat, (Avoine noire de Brie,) from France. In the length of the straw, and the form of the panicle, this variety is similar to the Potato oat. The grain is rather large, well filled, and of a shining black color, lighter towards the point. It is very prolific, and about a week earlier than the Potato oat, weighing 42 pounds to the bushel.
Chenailles Oat, (Avoine noire de Chenailles,) from France ; resem- bling the preceding in the character of the grain, but somewhat earlier and of taller growth.
Spanish Oat, from the south of Spain, with light-colored grains, heavy, and well filled with farinaceous matter. It probably would suc- ceed well in the Middle and Southern States for late fall or winter- sowing.
Silver Buckwheat, (Sarrazin argente,) from France ; an esteemed sort, with whitish grains, and employed for the same purposes as the com- mon kind.
White Quinoa, (Chenopodium quinoa,) from France, but originally from Peru, where it is a native. The grains are round, white, and about the size of mustard-seed. The leaves of this plant, before it attains full maturity, are eaten like spinach ; but the seeds are the parts most generally used as food, being both nutritious and wholesome, as well as easy of digestion. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but most frequently are boiled in milk or soups, or cooked with sweet peppers and cheese.
This plant is very vigorous, quite insensible to cold, and produces an abundance of seed on a good, light, warm soil. Its culture is simple. If intended for its grain, it may be sown in a sheltered border early in the spring, in order that it can be transplanted before the return of summer heats; or it maybe sown in open culture in drills, in the mid- dle of the spring. When the plants become of sufficient size, they are removed and planted at the distance of twenty inches apart, well exposed to the sun. If desired for the leaves only, they may be set nearer to each other, and the stalks cut off at the first gathering, in
XIV PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
order to cause them to branch out for a succession of crops. By wa- tering during the summer, should there not be rain, the product of leaves will be incessantly renewed.
Forty Days Maize, (Mai's quarantain,) a dwarf variety from the south of Spain, reputed once to have ripened high up in the Alps in forty days after planting. The object of introducing this grain into the United States was on account of its quick growth, early maturity, and sweet flavor in the green state, as well as the delicacy of the bread made from its meal. Besides, it appears to be well adapted to the high latitudes and elevated valleys in many parts of the country, where most other varieties of corn will not thrive, and with a chance of a successful result in crossing it with the larger sorts, to which it might impart, in a degree, its quality of early ripening, if not its taste.
Indian Millet, or Dourah Corn, (Holcus sorghum,) from St. Martin, in the West Indies ; described at length in another part of this volume.
LEGUMES.
Early Long-podded Bean, from England ; quite as prolific as the com- mon Long-podded, but considerably earlier. It probably will do well at the South, but of doubtful success north of Virginia.
Long-podded or Butter Bean, from Germany ; an esteemed sort for eating in a green state when shelled.
Early Dwarf French Bean, (Haricot flageolet, or Nain hatif de Laon,) rather long, narrow, and cylindrical in shape, and of a whitish or pale- green color. It is one of the most esteemed varieties in the neighbor- hood of Paris; very dwarfy and rapid in its growth, and is much em- ployed- there as " snaps," or shelled in a green state, and even when dried. From its bushy and dwarfy habit, it will bear close planting — say from two feet to two and a half feet apart.
Fearl Bean, xmthout strings, from Germany ; a fine variety, used as " snaps" when green, or in a dried state when shelled. It probably will prove a runner.
Fearl or Round Turkey Pea Bean, from Germany ; represented as an excellent and prolific sort, with yellow transparent pods.
Mexican Beans, (Frijoles,) two varieties, "Black" and "Reddish," treated of in last year's report.
Early May Pea, from England ; already known to the market gar- deners and seedsmen of the United States.
Early White May Pea, from Germany ; represented as an excellent variety for early sowing.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XV
Dwarf Hamburg Cluster Pea, from Germany ; the best and earliest of the earliest sorts of that country.
Late Fall Golden Pea, from Germany ; well adapted for very late sowing for autumn use, and not affected in its growth by mildew or heat.
Auvergne Pea, from England; a very hardy productive sort, growing to a height of four or five feet, of an excellent quality, and adapted for late sowing for fall use.
Capucine Pea, from Germany; a fine variety to be used in succession.
Champion of England Pea, from England; much esteemed as a second sowing ; already well known to American seedsmen, as well as to pri- vate growers.
Oregon Pea, described in last year's report, the origin of which is unknown. It greatly resembles, if it is not identical with, the Oleagi- nous pea, (Dolichos mridis,) lately introduced into France, from China, by M. Montigny, French consul at Shanghai, to whom we are already indebted for the Sorgho Sucre' and the Chinese Yam.
Japan Pea, also described in last year's report, and has been since cultivated with remarkable success.
Soja Bean, (Soja hispida,) procured by the Japan Expedition ; two varieties, the "White" and the "Red-seeded," both of which are em- ployed by the Japanese for making soy, a kind of black sauce, pre- pared with the seeds of this plant, wheaten flour, salt, and water. This " soy," or " soja," which is preferred to the Kitjajp of the Chinese, is used in almost all their dishes instead of common salt. The soy may be made as follows :
Take a gallon of the beans of this plant and boil them until soft ; add bruised wheat, one gallon; keep in a warm place for twenty-four hours ; then add common salt, one gill, and water, two gallons ; and put the whole into a stone jar, and keep it tightly closed for two or three months, frequently shaking it; and then press out the liquor for use.
The seeds of this plant only require to be sown in a warm, shel- tered situation at the time of planting Indian corn, and cultivated as any garden bean.
White Lupine, (Lupinus albus,) from the south of Spain, where it is cultivated to a limited extent for forage, as well as for soiling. It was employed as food by the ancient Romans, and, as with the inhabitants of the present day, was ploughed into the soil as a manure. In Ger- many, also, it has been found to be one of those plants by which un- fruitful, sandy soils may be most speedily brought into a productive
XVI PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
state. The superiority of this plant for the purpose of enriching the soil depends upon its deep roots, which descend more than two feet beneath the surface; upon its being little injured by drought, and not liable to be attacked by insects ; upon its rapid growth ; and upon its large produce in leaves and stems. Even in the north of Germany, it is said to yield, in three and a half to four months, ten or twelve tons of green herbage. It grows in all soils except such as are marly and calcareous; is especially partial to such as have a ferruginous subsoil; and, besides enriching, also opens stiff clays by its strong stems and roots. It abounds in potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid, and is considered the best of green manures, being almost equal to farm-yard dung. The seeds are somewhat expensive, and about the size of peas. They should be sown as early in the spring as the season will admit, without injury from frost, and the plants will blossom in three or four months ; soon after which, they may be turned into the soil, and suc- ceeded by most of our field or garden crops. Although rather slow to decay, its decomposition may be hastened, if desirable, by the addi- tion of caustic lime.
Yellow Lupine, (Lupinus luteus,) from Germany, where it is exten- sively cultivated as a green or vegetable manure, to be ploughed under in poor soils. Large crops are also obtained for the seeds, which, when ground or crushed, serve to fatten cattle and swine. Its culture is nearly the same as the preceding.
Garbanzo, (Cicer arietinum,) or chick-pea, from Alicante, in Spain. This is an annual plant, much cultivated in the south of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. Cooked whole, it is not easy of digestion ; but when eaten in the form of a soup or porridge, it is much esteemed. The famous Parisian dish called puree aux croutons, and the olla podrida of Spain, particularly the former, are composed of this pea. In warm countries, it is sown in autumn, and harvested the following summer ; but in a more temperate climate, it is sown in spring, and gathered in autumn just before its perfect maturity, in order that it may more readily be cooked.
Gallardoii's Large Light-colored Lentil, (Ervum ]ens,) from the south of France, but much cultivated in the neighborhood of Paris, both in the garden and open field. It is usually sown in lines or hills, but seldom broadcast. It is best adapted to a dry and sandy soil, as on rich land it runs too much to stalks and leaves rather than seeds. In France, it is sown late in March or in the beginning of April. In order that the lentils may be of a better or firmer quality, they are shelled or threshed out only as they are required for use. They may be cooked
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XV11
with bacon or in the form of a porridge or soup, like split peas. The ancient Romans are said to have caused them to germinate before cooking, in order to develop their saccharine qualities.
PLANTS CULTIVATED CHIEFLY FOR THEIR TUBERS OR ROOTS.
Potato Seed, (Solanum tuberosum,) from Germany; obtained from the apples, or balls, of the potato haulm. The importance of experi- menting with seed and the mode of culture are treated at length in another part of this volume.
Fluke Potato, from England ; a superior variety, much esteemed at Liverpool for its flat shape, and fine qualities for domestic use, and for long keeping. It bears late planting, yields well, and has never been known to be much affected by the rot. In order fairly to test its adap- tation to the Middle or Northern States, it would require to be cultivated for several years.
Regent Potato, "The Potato" of London market. It is roundish in shape, of good size, having a yellowish, rough skin, dry, mealy, of excellent flavor, and light-colored within. It matures rather early, keeps well during the winter and spring, and is productive in its yield.
Lapstone Kidney Potato, a fancy variety lately originated in York- shire, England, by a shoemaker. From its slight resemblance, in shape, to a lapstone, it has acquired its name. It is rather small, smooth, and light-colored without, and perfectly white and flour-like within, when cooked.
Parly White Potato, from England; another fancy variety of small size; finger-shaped, and early to mature.
Chinese Yam, (Dioscorea batatas,) originally from China, but more recently from France, where it is proposed as a substitute for the com- mon potato. It is fully described and treated of at length in another part of this volume.
Earth Almond, or Chufa, (Cyperus esculentus,) from the south of Spain. In addition to what is said of this plant in another part of this volume, in order to remove any prejudice which may exist in supposing that it is identical with the creeping cyperus, ( C. repens,) or nut-grass, which is found growing wild on the banks of streams, in pastures, and cultitivated ground, from New York to Florida and Louisiana, I would state that the latter differs essentially from the chufa in its height, as well as in the size, shape, and color of its spikelets. The roots, also, contain many fibrous branches, often terminating in edible tubers, about the size of a pea, creeping continuously along with, and just below, the surface, and send up numerous suckers, which are regarded by Southern
B
XV111 PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
planters as a great scourge to their crops. The chufa is quite differ- ent in this respect, only throwing up several stalks from one root, like the common potato, but does not spread.
Considerable attention has long been devoted to the cultivation o the chufa in the south of Spain, where it is stated that more than $400 have been realized from an acre in the short space of five months. Turnips. — Through the liberality of Messrs. Charlwood & Cummins* extensive seedsmen of London, the office received the following twenty- six varieties of turnip-seed, on condition that they should be sent to every State and Territory in the Union for experiment, with the view of testing their adaptation to the soil and climate ; said experiments to be conducted as uniformly as practicable, and the result made known to the public in the form of a report: Skirving's Swede, or Ruta-baga ; Rivers' Stubble Swede ; Laing's Swede ; Green-topped Swede; Dale's Hybrid ; Green-topped Six-weeks ; Snow Bali ; Strap- leaved ; Small Yellow Malta; White Globe, or Norfolk White; Green Round, or Nor- folk Green ; Green Globe, or Green Norfolk ; Golden Ball ; Red Globe, or Norfolk Red ; White Tankard, or Decanter ; Green Tankard, or Decanter ; Yellow Tankard, or Decanter ; Red Tankard, or Decanter; Green- topped Scotch ; Purple-topped Scotch ; Skirving's Purple-top- ped Scotch ; Early Stone, or Stubble-stone ; Yellow Stone ; Red- top- ped Stone ; White Dutch ; Yellow Dutch.
It may be needless to state that the above-named request has been complied with, so far as this office is concerned, and the seeds dis- tributed with an appropriate circular to all parts of the United States.
There have also been imported from England, in addition to the above, the following sorts, and extensively distributed far and wide : Rivers' Swede; Ashcroft's Swede; Sutton's Green-topped Yellow Hy- brid; Sutton's Purple-topped Hybrid; Sutton's Cruicksfield Hybrid; Sutton's Early Six-weeks; Border Imperial; Orange Jelly ; Yorkshire Paragon; Sutton's Improved Green Globe; and Lincolnshire Red Globe.
Four varieties were likewise imported from France, namely: Navet long des vertus, Navet de Freneuse, Navet turnip, and Rave d'Au- vergne.
Radishes. — Two varieties of radish were imported from England, the "Yellow Turnip," and the "Long Scarlet." From France, there were received the "Large Field Radish" (Raifort champetre,) "Olive- shaped Radish," (Radis rose demi-long,) " Short Scarlet Radish, (Radis rose demi-long 6carlate,) and the "Winter Rose-colored Radish," (Radis rose d'hiver.)
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XIX
Beets. — -Of these, there were imported from England the "London Red," and the "Bassano," the latter a turnip-rooted variety, which originated in Italy, and is already known to American cultivators. There was also introduced from France the " Scaly or Rough Red Beet," (Betterave rouge crapaudine,) and from Germany the " White Silesian Sugar Beet," the latter of which is particularly valuable for feeding to milch cows.
Of the Mangold Wurzel, two sorts were imported, the "Large Yellow Globe" from England, and the "Large Long Yellow" (Betterave jaune grosse,) from France. The former is a fine variety which originated in England, growing mostly above the surface of the ground, which renders it particularly fit for shallow soils. The latter holds the first rank in the neighborhood of Paris for feeding milch cows. There is also the " German Yellow," (Betterave jaune d'Allemagne,) intro- duced into France about thirty years ago, and is now extensively cul- tivated. From this a sub-variety has been produced, called Betterave jaune des Barres, which some consider as a model forage beet, or man- gold, wurzel. It is of elliptical form, and so little buried in the ground as to be easily torn up by the hand, and is equal in quantity and quality to the varieties named above.
Carrots. — Of carrots, five sorts were imported: "St. James" from England, and the "Short Red," (Carotte rouge courte,) "Long Yellow" (Carotte jaune longue,) "Vosges White" (Carotte blanche des Vosges,) and the "Green-crowned White" (Carotte blanche a collet vert,) from France.
Parsnips. — Of these, only two varieties were introduced, named the "Hollow-crowned," from England, and the "Round Parsnip," (Panais rond,) from France.
Onions. — From France, three varieties of the onion were imported : the " Brunswick Dark Red," (Oignon rouge fonce de Brunswick,) "Cambray," (Oignon de Cambrai,) and the " Early White," (Oignon blanc hatif.)
A variety of Leek (Poireau long) was also imported from France.
The Cderiac or Turnip-rooted Lelery (Apium graveolens rapaceum) has been introduced both from Germany and England. It is mentioned at length in another part of this volume.
Chickory, or Succory, (Chicoree sauvage a cafe,) from France ; prin- cipally cultivated for use in salads, and for its roots to roast for mixing with coffee. Mentioned at length in another part of this volume.
XX PRELIMINARY REMAKES.
PLANTS, THE LEAVES OP WHICH ARE CHIEFLY USED FOR SALADS^
POTAGfE, &C.
Early York Cabbage, from England ; already known to American! cultivators.
Large Ox-heart Cabbage, (Chou cceur de bosuf gros,} from France '7 one of the best kinds cultivated.
Also dan or Quintal Cabbage, (Chou d' Alsace ou quintal,) from France* with short thick stalks, and very large heads, having festooned leaves., of a very bright green color. The head of this cabbage grows to an enormous size, on rich, new land.
Large Red Cabbage, (Chou Milan des vertus,) from France; the largest of the Milan varieties, which are noted for growing more open* and in being more delicate and less musky in their flavor. It requires a very rich soil.
London Cauliflower, from England; a superior variety. Medium Cauliflower, (Chou-fleur demi-dur,) from France ; possessing qualities between the fine, tender sorts and those which are coarse and tough.
Broccoli. — There have been imported from England three varieties of broccoli: the "Mammoth," "Imperial White," and the "Purple Cape;" the latter direct from the Cape of Good Hope.
Two varieties of Kohl-rabi, or "Turnip-stemmed Cabbage," one from England, and the other from France ; described in another part of this volume.
Brussels Sprouts, (Chou de Bruxelles,) from France ; producing in the axils of the leaves small heads, resembling those of other cabbages. They are very tender, and much esteemed. By successive sowing, in the Northern and Middle States, from April to June, this excellent vegetable will be fit for use from early in autumn till late in the winter, as it stands frosts better than most other kinds.
Sea Kale, (Crambe maritima,) from England ; a notice of which will be found in another part of this volume.
Lettuces. — Of lettuce, three varieties were received from Germany : the "Blood Red," "Spotted" or "Tiger," and the "Asparagus lettuce." There are three kinds, also, from France : the "Large, Brown Slow- growing," (Laitue grosse brune paresseuse,) with greyish-green leaves, ?narked with pale, brownish spots, having very large and regular heads slightly tinged with red at the top; "Roman Pale colored Marsh," (Laitue romaine blonde meraichere,) an esteemed sort, much cultivated in the neighborhood of Paris, forming heads without tying; and the
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXI
"Gotte" or "Gau" lettuce (Laitue gotte,) a variety suitable for grow- ing under glass for winter use.
Celery. — Of celery there was imported from France one variety, * 'Early Dwarf," (Celeri court hatif,) which, from its compactness of growth, does not require to be tied before earthing up, with fine dense beads, and prompt in blanching; two varieties, also, were imported from England, "Seymour's White Solid" and "Cole's Red," both of which are already known to American growers.
True Giant Asparagus, from England.
Lettuce-leaved Spinach, (Epinard a feuille de laitue,) from France; with very large, thick, dark-green leaves, which form themselves into a bunch or head.
PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR BERRIES OR FLESHY FRUITS.
Large Yellow-fleshed Pumpkin, or Squash, (Potiron jaune gros,) from France; the fruit of which is very heavy, of a gold yellow within, and grows to an enormous size.
Cassabar Melon, from Asia Minor, which, when pure, is of a sweet, delicious flavor, and may be eaten, even by invalids, with impunity. These seed were reported to be seven years old.
Valencia Melon, (Melon de Valencia,) from the south of Spain ; a variety of the Canteleup tribe, celebrated for its delicious, sweet flavor, -and preferred to all others in th« countries where it grows.
Summer Green- fleshed Melon, (Melon d'ete a chair verte,) from France.
Honfleur Melon, (Sucrin de Honfleur,) from France ; very large, some- what long, with thick ribs ; having a rather coarse flesh, but full of sweet juice.
Prescott Canteleup, (Cantaloup Prescott,) from France ; a variety much caltivated, and the most esteemed of any at Paris. Its color varies from green to a silvery tint, having ribs more or less rough.
White-fleshed Winter Melon, (Melon de invierno con carna blanca,) from the south of Spain.
Winter Melon, (Melon d'hiver,) from the south of France ; with a smooth rind, greenish-white, brittle flesh, juicy, and of a delicate flavor. It keeps well as late as the month of February.
Long, Thick, Smooth Cucumber, from Germany ; suitable for salting when nearly turning yellow, and after extracting the seeds.
London Short, Prickly Cucumber, from England.
Long White Cucumber, (Concombre blanc long,) from France.
Gherkin Cucumber, (Concombre a cornichon,) from France; produc- ing small green fruits, much prized for pickling.
XX11 PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
Long Violet- colored Egg-plant, (Aubergine violette longue,) from France ; a small, long-fruited variety, of much better flavor and deli- cacy than the large oval or round sorts.
Early Red Tomato, (Tomate native,) from France.
Sweet Pepper, (Pimiento dulce,) from the south of Spain.
PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR FODDER, MANURE, OR FOR THEIR USES IN MANUFACTURES AND THE ARTS.
Sorgho Sucre, (Sorghum saccharatum?) a new gramineous plant from France, the seeds of which were sent to that country some four years since from the north of China, by M. de JMontigny, the French consul at Shanghai. A full description of this product will be found in another part of this volume. There is one feature in regard to this plant, per- haps it may be well to state : It would seem that in a tropical climate, while the sugar-cane is perfecting its growth, there might be three crops of the Sorgho obtained from the same ground; and should it prove to be as rich in saccharine matter as has been alleged, a greater amount of sugar would be obtained from a given space than from the cane, besides the advantages of the distribution of the work throughout the year, instead of a press of labor forced upon the planters at one time. There is also another feature in this plant which would seem to be worthy of notice, as a forage plant in the Middle and Western States : If the seeds are sown early in May, two crops of fodder can be raised from the same roots in the season — say, one about the first of August, and the other in October.
Moha de Hongrie, (Panicum germanicum,) from France ; an annual, good for forage, green or dry, very productive, of quick growth, and flourishes well on dry soils. The seeds may be sown from May until July. The following extract from the uBon Jardinier" for 1855 will give some idea how this grass is appreciated in France :
"My first attempts on a large scale did not succeed well ; but one of my neighbors, among others, made such good use of it for feeding horses and cows, that I was induced to try it again, which I did with success. I sowed it in 1S35, in a dry, calcareous soil, when I remarked in it the quality of great resistance to drought. It remained green and in an excellent state in spite of the high temperature and great drought of that year, even in places which had not been manured. This time, I sowed it in drills, and regularly weeded it; but haricot beans and Panicum italicum, sowed and treated in the same manner, withered and lost their leaves, while the Moha remained green and fresh. The disastrous drought of 1842 gave new proof of the superiority of this
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XX111
plant in this respect. In the middle of a calcareous plain, where every- thing had perished, the Moha remained unchanged. A considerable portion of the heads were tolerably well filled with seed, and the threshing gave a good though diminished product. When it is in- tended to perfect the grain the Moha must be sown in May ; when it is only wanted as a green forage, it may be sown as late as July, at the rate of ten to twelve pounds to the acre in the first case, and fourteen to sixteen in the latter."
Sainfoin, (Hedysarum onobrychis,) two varieties from France : the "Common" (Sainfoin ordinaire,) and the "Double-bearing," (Sainfoin a deux coupes,) both of which are perennial. The former is best adapted for poor soils, and will not admit of but one crop in a season. The latter is generally cultivated in all parts of France, is more vigorous, hardier, and more productive than the common sort, yielding two cut- tings in a year. The farmers consider it necessary to sow it upon good land, lest the plants shouM deteriorate, as on soils of inferior quality the sowings must be occasionally renewed. As its stalks are thicker and harder, and its seeds larger than those of the other variety, it must be sown more closely — say, at the rate of six or seven bushels to an acre. The sowing is generally done in spring, but sometimes early in autumn. If the seed is a year old, it is not liable to vegetate.
Serradilla, (Ornithopus sativus,) an annual from Germany ; employed in Portugal as an artificial forage, in dry, sandy soils, where it affords an early pasturage for cattle. As it is somewhat tender, it probably would only answer for our Southern or, perhaps, the Middle States. From its fine quality and great productiveness, it is desirable to experi- ment with it as far North as it would be likely to grow, when it would be better to sow it in spring with other grain, in order to obtain in autumn a green crop, or cut it for hay.
Heracleim Sibiricum, (Berce de Sibe"rie,) a perennial from Germany, producing a very abundant, early green forage. It is sown in autumn and comes up the following spring.
Chilian Clover, or Alfalfa, (Medicago sativa?) from Chili; a peren- nial variety of lucerne, which succeeds well in our Middle and Southern States. It differs from the common lucerne of Europe only in the color of its flowers, which are purple. It is sown in autumn in drills, in a deep, rich soil, producing good forage for animals, either green or dry, the following summer, and will endure for many years. Deep culture is absolutely necessary, in order to allow the extension of the roots into the earth.
Yellow or Black Trefoil, (Medicago lupulina,) a biennial from Eng-
XX1Y PRELIMINARY REMABKS.
land, at present considerably cultivated in the central parts of France. One of its advantages is, that it grows well in dry and inferior soils. Its forage, though less abundant than other trefoils, or clovers, is of fine and good quality, and not dangerous to cattle when eaten green, in producing hoven. It is much more valuable, however, for an early sheep pasture, than to convert it into hay. It may be sown in March or April, like other spring grains*
Coiu Grass, or Perennial Clover, (Trifolium medium vel perenne,) from England ; usually sown among other grass-seeds for a permanency, but not with the common red clover.
Alsyhe or Swedish Clover, (Trifolium hybridum,) from England ; believed to have originated in the south of Sweden, where it is par- ticularly abundant. It is best adapted to moist and strong soils, and has the property of self-sowing, when the flowers are left to mature, which will cause it to endure fifteen, twenty or more years. The usual course to pursue is to cut it once a year for«hay, afterwards leaving it for pasturage. Its flowers, which put forth in June in great profusion, resemble in shape those of the common white clover, but are larger and of a rosy tint, of a sweet, agreeable odor, and afford an excellent forage for bees. It may be sown with autumn or spring grain ; with the latter it is preferable, to prevent winter- killing.
Suckling Red Clover, (Trifolium filiforme,) from England.
Perennial Ray Grass, (Lolium perenne,) two varieties from England, the " Italian" and the "Improved." The former is said to be distin- guished from the common ray-grass of England, by its earlier maturity, larger leaves, deeper green color, and by the greater height to which it grows. It is usually sown in autumn, as is the general practice with grass-seeds in the south of Europe. After the field is harrowed, it is sown at the rate of sixteen to eighteen pounds to the acre, and the seed rolled in. In the following autumn, the turf is covered like an old meadow,, and the crop of the next year is more than double. It may also be sown in spring. It is eaten greedily by cattle, whether green or dry, and yields fifty per cent, of hay.
The "Improved Ray Grass" possesses several desirable properties, which recommend it to the attention of cultivators, the principal of which are — its adaptation to a great variety of soils; the facility with which it is propagated, by reason of its seeds being produced in abundance, and their uniformity in ripening; and the fibrous structure of its roots, which fits it in an eminent degree for alternate husbandry. Notwithstanding all these good qualities, its culture in the Middle and Southern portions of the Union, at least, should be entered into with
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXV
caution, from the great heats and summer droughts. Again, at the extreme North there is danger from the winter frost.
Meadow Fescue, (Festuca pratensis,) from England ; an excellent perennial grass, either for alternate husbandry or permanent pasture, but more particularly the latter. It is relished well by cattle, horses, and sheep.
Sheep's Fescue, (Festuca ovina,) from England ; an admirable peren- nial grass, well adapted for growing on elevated sheep pastures, where it is well relished by those animals, which prefer it to all other herbage where it exists.
Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, (Poa trivialis,) a valuable perennial grass, from England suitable for mixed pastures, particularly on damp soils, and where partly shaded by trees.
Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, (Anthoxanthum odoratum,) a perennial from England and France, yielding but a scanty herbage, and is not particularly relished by amy kind of live stock, perhaps with the exception of sheep. It is remarkable for giving out a pleasant odor during the process of drying. It has been recommended to be sown in sheep pastures for the purpose of improving the mutton, a quality which it is said to possess, and which is founded on the fact that places in which it naturally abounds are said to produce the finest mutton# From its dwarfy growth, and the close sward it forms, it is recom- mended to be sown on lawns or ornamental grounds.
Burnet Grass, or Pimprenelle, (Poterium sanguisorba,) an annual from France, well suited for pasturage on poor dry soils, whether sandy or calcareous. It may be sown early in the spring.
Goldbackia Torulosa, a new perennial oil plant from Germany, pro- ducing an abundance of seed, suitable for making oil. It is said to be hardy, and affords an early pasturage for sheep.
Gold of Pleasure, or Camelina Sativa, (Miagrum sativum,) an annual from France, which produces a finer oil for burning than rape, having a brighter flame, less smoke, and scarcely any smell. It succeeds well on light, shallow, dry soils, and in our Middle and Southern States it probably would produce two crops in a season. Besides the use of the seeds for oil, the stems yield a coarse fibre for making sacks and a rough kind of packing-paper, and the whole plant may be employed for thatching. The culture is similar to that of flax.
Colza, or Rape, (Brassica campestris ole'ifera,) two varieties from France, the "Colza froid" and "Colza parapluie." The former is highly recommended, the yield being much greater than the common varieties of rape. It may be distinguished by its luxuriant growth and
XXVI PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
reddish seeds. The latter, principally cultivated in Normandy, though less productive, has the advantage of throwing out lateral branches which, falling towards the ground, support the plant and prevent it from lodging in consequence of heavy rains that may happen near the time of maturity. Both varieties may be sown from the middle of July till the end of August, and treated in every respect like other winter rape. Spurry, (Spergula arvensis,) an annual from Germany and France? where it is much cultivated as a winter pasture for cattle and sheep. Mutton, as also the milk and butter of cows fed with it, are stated by Thaer to be of very superior quality. It is usually sown on stubble- fields after the grain crops have been removed.
But the principal use to which this plant can be applied in this country is as a green manure, on poor, dry, sandy, or worn-out soils. It may be sown either in autumn on the wheat stubble, or after early potatoes, and ploughed under in spring preparatory to the annual crop ; or it may be used to replace the naked fallow, which is often hurtful to lands of so light a character. In the latter case, the first sowing may take place in March, the second in May, and the third in July, each crop being ploughed in to the depth of three or four inches, and the new seed then sown and harrowed. When the third crop is ploughed in, the land is ready for a crop of winter grain.
Sand or Seaside Lyme Grass, (Elymus arenarius,) a perennial from Holland. This grass is not eaten by any of our domestic animals, owing, no doubt, to its excessive hardness and coarseness. Sir Humphrey Davy found, by analyzing the soluble matter afforded by this plant, that it contained one-third of its weight of sugar. Hence it has been called the " Sugar-cane of Great Britain." It has been recommended, however, that the hay made from it be cut like chaff and given to cattle, either alone or mixed with other food.
The purpose for which this plant is generally employed, and for which its creeping, matted roots fit it in an eminent degree, is for bind- ing loose sands, when sown with the Arundo arenaria, to prevent the encroachment of the sea.
Sea Reed, (Arundo arenaria,) from Holland. This plant, like the preceding, is unworthy of cultivation as food for cattle, but can only be employed to advantage in raising a barrier against the encroachment of the ocean.
The object of importing the seeds of these grasses was, to sow them on such parts of our coasts as may be threatened or are suffering injury from the sea, particularly on beaches or sand-hills which are liable to changes from abrasion or drifting winds. The world-renowned dykes
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXV11
of Holland owe much of their strength and durability to the protection afforded by those remarkable plants. With regard to their culture, I have no definite knowledge.
TREES AND SHRUBS.
The Carol Tree, or St. John's Bread (Ceratonia siliqua). — Of all the seeds imported for the purpose of distribution there are none more interesting nor more valuable than those of the carob tree. The pods? when matured, contain a few drops of a substance resembling honey. The tree is unquestionably of Eastern origin, and is supposed to be identical with that upon which St. John fed while in the wilderness. The seeds were procured for the office from Alicante, in Spain. In Murica, Valencia, Catalonia, and other provinces in that country, it abounds, and frequently forms, with the olive and other valuable trees, large forests. It was, without doubt, introduced there by the Moors, who knew its nutritive qualities as a food for their horses, mules, and cattle. They probably brought it from Palestine and Egypt, whence it appears to have originated. In these Spanish provinces, it now grows naturally in every kind of ground, not excepting the driest and most barren spots, where the underlying rock shows itself more fre- quently than earth. Its roots, twisting in every direction, accommo- date themselves to the lightness or depth of the soil ; while the trunk, remarkable for its smooth and light-colored bark, attains in sheltered positions a colossal size. The branches, furnished with greyish colored leaves, spread majestically around the trunk, and, when loaded with fruit, hang down quite to the ground in the form of a tent. The fruit ripens rapidly, and such is its abundance and weight that it is neces- sary at once to gather it. The pods are sweet and rich in sugar, and animals feed on them with avidity, and become quite fat and in good condition for work.
There are several varieties of the tree. The produce is necessarily in proportion to the attention given. It blooms twice a year — about the iirstof February and the middle of September — and when well watered arrives at a considerable height, and sometimes covers a space of one hundred feet in diameter, bearing upwards of a ton of pods. It wil doubtless succeed in the Southern and perhaps in the Middle States.
The Olive (Olea europsea). — Of the olive, it has been said, with much truth : " Olea prima omnium arborum est ;" and when we con- sider its productiveness, longevity, and usefulness, a little enthusiasm on the subject, perhaps, would not be altogether misplaced. The present importation is by no means the first attempt to cu tivale this tree
XXV111 PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
this country, as it had already been introduced into California by the Jesuits one hundred and fifty years before. In about the year 1755, Mr. Henry Laurens, of Charleston, imported from remote parts of the globe a great variety of useful and ornamental productions, among which were olives, capers, limes, ginger, Guinea-grass, the Alpine strawberry, (which bore fruit nine months in the year,) red raspberry, and blue grapes ; also directly from the south of France, apples, pears, plums of choice varieties, and the white Chasselas grape, the latter of which bore abundantly. The fruit raised from the olive tree was pre- pared and pickled, equal to those imported.
In 1769, the olive was introduced into Florida, by a colony of Greeks and Minorcans, brought over by a Dr. Turnbull, an English- man, who founded a settlement called "New Smyrna."
In 17S5, a society was incorporated in South Carolina for the pro- motion of agriculture. The object was to institute a farm for agricul- tural experiments, to import and distribute foreign productions suitable to the climate of Charleston, and to direct the attention of agriculturists of the State to economical objects, as well as to reward those persons who should improve the art of husbandry. Among other objects of interest, the society imported and distributed some cuttings of vines and olives. The latter answered well, but the climate near Charleston proved too moist for the grapes. Attempts have been made to propa- gate the olive from seeds in various parts of the South, but hitherto with little success. This may be attributed to a tendency in the olive to sport into inferior varieties when so planted; but there is every reason to hope that the new importations of cuttings of improved kinds will increase the production in many parts of the South.
Congress, in the year 1817, granted four townships of land in the present State of Alabama, on a long credit, to a company of French em- igrants, for the purpose and on the condition of their introducing and cultivating the olive and grape ; but the enterprise never was prose- cuted to any considerable extent, and it finally fell through, and the lands reverted to the government.
Of the olive stocks and cuttings recently from France, the following varieties were received and distributed in the Carolinas, Georgia, and other States bordering on the Mexican Gulf: Olivier blanquet nain ; Olivier vermillion nain ; Picholine nain ( i variety yielding the kind of olives most celebrated for pickling, and is not very particular in the choice of soil and climate); Olivier verdal nain; Olivier de cruan nain; Olivier de salon (a variety producing a small round fruit, good for oil,
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXIX
and prefers dry, elevated ground) ; Olivier bouquetier nain ; Olivier gros Redonaon ; and Olivier violet.
The Fig (Ficus carica). — The fruit of this tree is a great and whole- some luxury, both in a green and in a dried state, and its multiplica- tion in our Southern and Southwestern States cannot fail to be fraught with great advantage. It will grow well upon the poorer and drier soils, provided it is sheltered, and can be propagated with great ease ; and such is the goodness and abundance of its fruit, and the number of its varieties, that in some parts of Southern Europe it goes by the name of the "Providence of the Poor." In Spain it grows side by side with the carob and almond trees, and lines the fields and vineyards, its deep-green boughs forming an agreeable shelter from the heat of the sun.
The nature of the soil and its aspect influences considerably the choice and cultivation of the different kinds of figs. The white varie- ties, for instance, seem to prefer an elevated position and a strong, light soil; while the darker kinds succeed best where the situation is shel- tered and low. A very choice sort, the fruit of which is of a deep rose-color, while the trunk of the tree is nearly black, seems to thrive best in low, shady places, provided it be exposed to the rays of the rising sun. It is possible to increase the varieties of the fig ad infinitum, either by seed or by the more common method of cuttings, inclined and buried from two to three feet in the earth. In the third year the young tree is pruned, and the head is formed by leaving three branches, which in due time are covered with fruit. Some cultivators graft them in various ways about the time when the sap begins to move. With due attention, the product is greatly improved and increased, although few fruit trees, perhaps, bear so abundantly, considering the little trouble taken with them.
In all countries which may properly be called "fig climates," two crops are produced in a year. The first is from the old wood, and corresponds with the crops of England and the middle portions of the United States ; and the second from the wood of the current year, the figs produced by which, in the last-named countries, are never ripened except in hot-houses. In Greece, Syria, and Egypt, a third crop is sometimes produced. The first crop is ripened, in the south of France and in Italy, in May, and the second crop in September.
The only variety of cuttings lately imported from France was the large "White Fig," (Figuier blanc,) which is sufficiently hardy, with slight protection, to withstand the climate of the Middle States.
The Prune (Prunus domestical — The scions of two varieties of
XXX PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
prunes, "Prunier d'Agen," and "Prunier Sainte Catherine," have been imported from France, and distributed principally in the States north of Pennsylvania, and certain districts bordering on the range of th Alleghany mountains, in order to be engrafted upon the common plum. These regions were made choice of in consequence of their being freer from the ravages of the curculio, which is so destructive to the plum tree in other parts as often to cut off the entire crop. It has been esti- mated that the State of Maine, alone, where this insect is rarely seen, is capable of raising dried prunes sufficient to supply the wants of the whole Union.
The Prune d'Agen, which is considered the best for drying, is of good size, of a violet-color, with deep-yellow flesh of a delicious flavor. This variety succeeds best when engrafted upon a wild stock, or when it springs up directly from the root.
The Prune Sainte Catherine, in the climate near Paris, is also es- teemed as excellent for drying. It likewise furnishes to commerce the well-known "Pruneaux de Tours." The tree is of medium size, about twenty-five feet high, and grows well both as a pyramid and as a stand- ard. The branches are long, slender, and but little ramified; their shape being rather slight. Throughout their whole length there grow a large number of buds, so near to each other that on a branch a yard long there are often produced from fifty to sixty plums. Hence it is easy to con- ceive the excessive abundance of the crop of a tree thus laden with fruit, the productiveness of which is not equalled by any other kind. This plum is of medium size, obovate or nearly round, divided by a deep suture throughout its length. The stem is slender, about three- fourths of an inch long, curved at its upper part and inserted in a small cavity. The skm is fine, pale yellow, sometimes tinted with red on the sunny side, and lightly covered with a white transparent bloom. The flesh is yellowish, sometimes firm and adhering to the stone, very juicy, sweet, and agreeably flavored. It ripens in the neighborhood of Paris in September and October. This plum, beyond its unrivalled merits for preserving in a dried state, has the advantage of being an excellent dessert fruit when fully mature.
In very warm, dry climates, prunes are prepared by drying on hur- dles by solar heat alone; but in France, they place the plums upon round wicker baskets, about two feet in diameter, and two inches deep, putting into an oven heated sufficiently warm to cause the fruit to wrinkle after an exposure of about twelve hours. The oven is again heated, continuing to increase the temperature until the plums become firm, when they are flattened by pressure between the fingers, while
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXXI
under the process of desiccation. Great care is observed to remove the plums from the oven as soon as they arrive at a certain stage of dryness to prevent them from cooking too much. Finally, after the prunes are baked for the last time, the oven is heated as it should be for bread, in which the plums are exposed until they begin to swell and bubble, when they must be taken out. As soon as the tempera- ture of the oven falls to about half-heat, the prunes are put back to remain over night. Then, if properly cooked, they are covered with a beautiful white "bloom." They are then assorted by sizes, and packed in baskets, boxes, or jars, for sale or use.
If it is desirable to make what are called " Pruneaux fourres," the stones are taken out when they are about half baked, and insert in its place another plum which has also been deprived of its stone, and con- tinue the cooking as above.
Raisin Grape-vines. — Two varieties of small grapes, the "Vigne chev- eles," and the "Vigne Corinth," from which are made the Ascalon, Stoneless or Sultana raisins, and the Zante or Corinth currant, imported from France, and principally distributed in the Middle and Western States. The berries are small, often without seeds, with a fine pulp, and of an agreeable flavor. They are much used in a dry state in domes- tic cookery, and, should they succeed in this country, will add to the many varieties of useful and wholesome fruit already introduced. The English name of "currant" given to the Ribes rubrum, arises evi- dently from the similarity of that fruit to the small grape of Zante, or the common grocer's "Corinths," or "currants."
The Levant and Grecian Islands supply the largest proportion of dried currants for the markets, and retain their reputation by the general superiority of the fruit they furnish. Spain, Italy, and the southern portions of France, also supply a considerable amount. The method pursued for making these currants varies somewhat with the locality and the variety employed. They are more easily prepared than the larger grapes, which are known in commerce under the name of "rai- sins." These require to be dipped, in the first stage, into a rather strong ley, made of wood-ashes, sweetened by an addition of aromatic plants, such as thyme, lavender, orange leaves, &c. ; but the small grapes here in question are merely gathered a few days after complete maturity, at the moment when it is perceived that the berries are about to fall from the vines. They are then placed upon hurdles of close wicker-work, or upon large sheets, in the sun. When it is perceived that the berries are detaching themselves from the main stalk, although still preserving their stems, the operation is often hastened by striking
XXX11 PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
the bunches slightly with a stick. The stalks are then separated from them by means of a sieve, and the dust and other remains are got rid of by winnowing ; after that, they are packed in boxes, where they are pressed in closely, covered with thick paper, and kept in a dry, cool place.
A very important point in the management of all varieties of grape is the mode and season for pruning. No general system or rule will suit. Experience must be the guide as to what will answer best in different climates, soils, and situations. A method which will do well in the North may be destructive to the plant in the South.
The Jujube Plum, (Zizyphus sativa,) a small tree or thorny shrub, from the south of France, bearing a reddish plum about the size of olives, of an oval shape and sweet clammy taste, including a hard ob- long stone, pointed at both ends. From this fruit is made the "Jujube paste" of the shops. In Italy and Spain it is served up at the table in desserts during the winter season, as a dry sweetmeat. These seeds have principally been distributed in the Middle and Southern States.
Pistachio Nut, (Pistacia vera,) an extremely interesting tree, has been imported, not merely on account of its ornamental character, but be- cause it is useful and produces agreeable nuts. For the twofold reason, a quantity of them has been imported from the southern part of Eu- rope and widely distributed throughout the Middle and Southern sections of the Union. In favorable situations, it will attain a height of fifteen or twenty feet, and frequently, while a mere shrub of five or six years' standing, will bear. Its branches spread out widely, without being nu- merous; and the trunk is covered with a greyish-colored bark. The inflorescence takes place about April or May. The male flowers, which appear first, shoot from the side of the branches in loose panicles, and are of a greenish tint. The female flowers put forth in clusters in the same manner.
As the pistachio tree is dioecious, it is necessary to plant male and female trees together, or they will not produce. The nuts are of an oval form, about the size of an olive, slightly furrowed, and of a reddish color, containing an oily kernel of a mild and agreeable flavor. It is a native of Persia, Syria, Arabia, and Barbary, and is supposed to have been introduced into Italy in the second century by the Emperor Vitellius ; whence it was carried into France, in the southern parts of which it is so far naturalized as really to appear indigenous. Later still, that is in 1770, it was introduced into England, where in sheltered positions it bears without protection from the cold of ordinary winters. The summers there are scarcely warm enough to ripen its nuts.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXXlll
Although severe frost is to be dreaded, it will bear a greater degree of cold than either the olive or the almond, and hence is better adapted to the climate of our Middle and Southern States, where it is thought it could be cultivated with profit. The finest kinds are those known as the Aleppo and Tunis varieties — the former for its large size; the latter- though smaller, for qualities which recommend it to French confection, ers, who cover the fruit with sugar and chocolate, and flavor creams and ices with it. A similar pistachio nut is used in France in the preparation of sausages and in seasoning meats. It is considered as a tonic, and as beneficial for coughs and colds. It is frequently eaten raw, but oftener in a dried state, like almonds.
The CorJc Tree, (Quercus suber,) from the south of Europe. Much is anticipated from the successful introduction of this product, as the acorns have been distributed throughout the Middle and Southern por- tions of the Union for experiment, where it is hoped that it will prove to be adapted to the soil and climate. Should a portion of the present distribution by any untoward circumstance fail to answer expectation, care should be taken by the office to obtain another supply for those who feel an interest in growing this useful tree. Plantations might be established in every favorable locality, so that in due time, the increasing wants of the country for cork may fully be met by the home supply. Therefore, if the introduction should prove successful, the enterprise cannot be regarded otherwise than of national importance.
This tree, under favorable circumstances, grows rapidly, and attains a height of upwards of thirty feet. Indeed, even in England, there are specimens over fifty feet high, with a diameter of more than three feet. In the south of Europe, cork trees are much esteemed, and lands planted with them are considered the most profitable of all that are not irrigated. They seem in general to prefer those localities where gneiss, sandstone, schistose and calcareous rocks abound. The substance so familiarly known to us as "cork," is the epidermis or outer bark, which sometimes acquires a thickness of two or three inches. This is rarely taken off' until the tree has arrived at an age of fifteen or twenty years. This operation, which is carried on every six, seven, eight, or nine years, according to circumstances, is generally completed in the months of May and June, while the sap is still active in the tree. Although easy to accomplish, some care is required to avoid injuring the true bark, (liber,) which lies under the cork. A circular incision is usually made round the foot of the tree, and another near the branches. Longitudinal cuts are then made; and finally, by using the handle of a c
XXXIV PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
hatchet as a wedge, the cork is detached from the under bark. The larger branches are treated in a similar manner.
Mate, or Paraguay Tea, (Ilex paraguariensis). — We are indebted for the seeds of this shrub to Lieutenant Page, of the U. S. steamer Water Witch, while engaged in exploring the sources of the Rio de la Plata, in South America. It is worthy of attention of persons living in the Middle and Southern sections of the Union. As a tree, it is highly ornamental; and wherever the Magnolia grandiflora will thrive, there it may be successfully cultivated. The inhabitants of Paraguay, and indeed most of those who use it on the southern part of this continent, attribute to it almost fabulous virtues. It is unquestionably aperient and diuretic, and produces effects very similar to opium ; but most of the qualities so zealously attributed to it may, with some reason, be doubted. Like that drug, however, it excites the torpid and languid, while it calms the restless, and induces sleep. Its effects on the con- stitution, when used immoderately, are similar to those produced by ardent spirits; and when the habit of drinking it is once acquired, it is equally difficult to leave it off. The leaves of the plant are used by in- fusion, and all classes of persons partake of it, drinking it at all hours of the day at their various meals, rarely indeed beginning to eat before tasting their favorite beverage. Not only is this the case in Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic, but in Peru, Chili, and Ecua- dor, it is no less esteemed. They drink the tea from the spout of a pot which they call mate, adding to it a little burnt sugar, cinnamon, or lemon-juice. The wealthier or more refined class draw it into the mouth through a tin or silver pipe, called bombilla, which, being perfo- rated with holes at one end, and inserted in the male, or teapot, enables them to partake of the liquid without swallowing the smaller particles of the pulverized leaves floating on the surface. The quantity of leaves used by a person who is fond of it is about an ounce. The infusion is generally kept at the boiling temperature, but those who are accustomed to it seem to drink it thus without inconvenience. In the mean time, hot water is supplied as fast as it is consumed, every visiter being supplied with his male and pipe. If allowed to stand long, the tea acquires an inky color. The leaves, when fresh, taste somewhat like mallows, or inferior Chinese green tea.
Morocco Dressers' Sumach, (Rhus coriaria,) from the south of Europe. The seeds of this shrub have been imported for experiment in the Mid- dle States, where it is thought it will be adapted to the climate. It usually grows from six to eight feet in height, on dry, sandy, or rocky soils, in exposed situations. The branches and leaves are imported into
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXXV
this country, and employed for tanning leather. It is said that they are used in Turkey and Barbary for preparing the Turkey morocco from the skins of sheep and goats. The seeds are sold at Aleppo, where they are eaten to provoke an appetite.
Furze, (Ulex europgeus,) from Brittany, in France ; a low prickly shrub, used as an excellent green fodder for cattle, when bruised. It was imported for a hedge-plant in the Middle and Southern States, and is described in another part of this volume.
French Broom, (Genista scoparia,) from France ; alow, hardy shrub, growing from three to nine feet in height, with numerous straight, sharp branches, and used as fodder for sheep and for making brooms. It will grow on any dry, meagre or sandy soil, and is well adapted for protecting the sides of the embankments and cuttings of railroads.
It may be remarked that most of the fore-mentioned seeds and cut- tings have been, or are to be, placed in the hands of members of Con- gress, and the secretaries of State and County Agricultural Societies, for distribution in their respective districts, reference having been made to their adaptation to the soil and climate, as well as to the economy of the sections where intended to grow. All of those procured in Europe weie obtained from reliable sources, and are believed to be of superior quality and true to their kind, the vitality of which has been tested, as far as practicable, by actual germination under glass or by other means. It is not to be expected, however, that every variety will succeed in all parts of the country, if in an}^, where the experiments are to be made, as one may have the disadvantages against him incident to a change of soil and climate, as well as from an unfavorable season, which no human power can prevent or avert.
I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
D. J. BROWx\E.
Hon. Charles Mason,
Commissioner of Patents.
AGRICULTURAL CIRCULAR
United States Patent Office,
Washington, February 1, 1855. To Farmers, Planters, and other Cultivators :
The collection of statistics on Agriculture being one of the duties of this office, your aid is respectfully solicited. For the sake of conve- nience, questions intended for various individuals in all portions of the country are hereunto annexed, which are to serve rather as hints or suggestions, than to be literally follow e'd in the replies.
As we seek no information that is not strictly reliable, it is hoped that your answers will be limited to those matters with which you are concerned, even although they may relate only to a single subject. If, therefore, you can communicate explicit and undoubted information on any of the topics under investigation, you will confer a favor by so doing. It is not expected that the reply of any one individual will relate to all the subjects embraced in this circular, but only to those with which he is practically familiar.
As another object sought to be attained by this office is the intro- duction and dissemination of new or improved agricultural products, we shall take pleasure in receiving and distributing any packages or parcels which may be committed to our charge, whether they consist of the seeds of cultivated plants, either of native or foreign growth, or those of our natural grasses, fruits, wild flowers, forest trees, or of the cuttings or sets of anything which may be deemed worthy of cultiva- tion.
With our efforts in these respects, it is hoped that the interest you feel in agricultural subjects will induce you to co-operate as far as you may find it convenient and agreeable. Accurate statistics are desired as far as it is practicable to obtain them ; but all that we can reasona- bly expect, in most cases, is the nearest approach to the truth to which your experience and judgment will lead you.
The subjoined inquiries are mainly intended to direct your attention to certain points on which information is desired. It is hoped, there- fore, that the mention of these will not exclude any other maters of general interest that may suggest themselves. Your reply to those you
PRELIMINARY REMARKS. XXXV11
may feel willing to answer is solicited at as early a date as practicable ; not later, at all events, than the first day of December next. Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
CHARLES MASON,
Commissioner,
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
What classes of animals can be raised to the best advantage in your section? Cost of rearing, and value at various ages? Cost of trans- porting each to the Atlantic or Gulf markets, alive, by canal, railroad, or on foot? What breeds are the most serviceable for labor, milk, flesh, or wool? Have you an}' imported or blood animals in your vicinity? If so, state the number, breed, history, and pedigree, if known, and the effects of crossing, if any, on your common stock, together with }^our mode of feeding and management.
ANIMAL PRODUCTS.
What is the cost of production and market value, in your vicinity, of wool, silk, wax, honey, cochineal, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, beef, mutton, pork, hams, lard, oil, hides, tallow, pelts, &c. ? W^hat is the cost, per hundred pounds, of tran spoliation by canal, railroad, or other- wise, to the Atlantic or Gulf markets ?
MANURES.
What manures are most in use with you, and which the most valua- ble for special crops ? If guano, bone-dust, poudrette, super-phosphate, lime, gypsum, charcoal, ashes, fish, muck, or any other valuable fertil- izers are employed in your vicinity, state the cost, modes of applica- tion, and their effects upon the respective crops to which they have been applied. The result of any accurate experiments would be desirable, especially as connected with any of our great leading staples — cotton, tobacco, hemp, flax, wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice, potatoes, or Indian corn.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
What crops can be cultivated to the best advantage in your section? The best modes of cultivation? The maximum, and average yield of each, and the smallest yield that will pay expenses? Have you any established rotation of crops ? What plants are cultivated for the pur- pose of ploughing under as a manure? Have you any remedies against the diseases and insects which infest your crops? What are your best modes of harvesting, storing, and preparation for market ?
XXXviii PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
What is the cost of production and market value, in your vicinity, of the various kinds of grains, roots, hay and fodder, cotton, hemp, flax, hops, sugar, tobacco, &c. ? What the cost per hundred pounds or per bushel of transporting each product, by canal, railroad, or otherwise, to the Atlantic or Gulf markets?
Special interest is felt at the present time in those plants which are employed in the manufacture of cordage, clothing, &c, such as cotton, hemp, and flax. Are any of these crops profitably cultivated by you ? | If so, have you any improved variety, new modes of cultivation, har- vesting, or preparation for market?
MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING.
Please to give the names of the best varieties of garden vegetables, the usual time of sowing, periods of maturity, yield on a given space of ground, and their market values. What vegetables are brought into your vicinity from the North, South, East, West, or from beyond sea; at what seasons, and at what prices?
FRUITS, WINE, ETC.
What varieties of summer, fall, and winter fruits are cultivated with the best success in your section? What kinds are attacked by blight, mildew, or insects, particularly injurious to their perfect growth? If any, what remedies have you against their attacks? Have you any improved modes of cultivating fruit, harvesting, storing, and preparing it for market? What is the cost per bushel or barrel of transporting those kinds not perishable, to the Atlantic and Gulf markets, by canal, railroad, or otherwise? What is the current value per bushel or barrel of each kind in your vicinity ? Is the grape cultivated with you for table use, or with the object of making wine? If for either, can you communicate any information relative to its name, history, cultivation, preservation, or the manufacture, cost, and market value of American wine? What fruits are sold in your vicinity grown at the North, South, East, or West; at what seasons, and at what prices?
LIVE FENCES.
What trees or shrubs form the best live hedges in your vicinity ? How long have such hedges, if any, been established? Are they seriously affected by frost or drought? What was the cost per rod, the annual expense of trimming, and your mode of management ?
Note. — Please to treat each subject under a distinct head, after the manner of the arrangement of the present Report ; and, if convenient, leave one side of your manuscript blank.
CONTENTS.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
Experiments with Seeds — Seeds and Cuttings recently introduced into the United Stated- Agricultural Circular. Page v.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Remarks on the Principles of Breeding-— Horned Cattle — Daries — Horses — Asses — -Mules— Sheep and Wool— Sheep Husbandry in Spain — Kentucky Sheep — Swine. Page 1.
INSECTS. Insects injurious to Vegetation — Insects beneficial to Agriculture — Bees— Silkworm. Page 58„
FERTILIZERS, &c.
Guano — Remarks on Fertilizers or Saline Manures — Fertilizers for Fruit Trees — Light and Shade—Improvement of Land — Rotation of Crops. Page 90.
BREAD CROPS.
Iudian Corn— Wheat— Rye — Barley — Oats — Buckwheat — Rice — Dourah Corn — Potatoes- Chinese Yam. Page 122.
TEXTILE AND FORAGE CROPS.
Remarks on cleaning Fibres of Textile Plants— Cotton — History and Culture of, in Missis . sissippi- — Investigation of Cotton Fibre — Flax— Hemp— Grass— Hay— Fodder — Japan Pea — -Oregon Pea— Turnips — Pumpkins. Page 174.
MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
Tobacco — Directions for Cultivation and Management — Cultivation of Cuba Tobacco — Sugar Cane — Its History and Production in Mississippi — Researches on the Sorgho Sucre-™ Broom Corn — Tomatoes— Capers — Okra, or Gumbo— -Bene Plant. Page 209.
FRUITS, NUTS, AND WINE.
Production of new varieties of Fruits from Seeds — Fruits for general Cultivation — Fruits which promise well— Rejected Fruits — Fruits of Connecticut — Fruits of Maine— Fruits of Maryland— Fruits of Mississippi— Fruits of Missouri— Fruits of New Hampshire— Fruits of Ohio— Fruts of Pennsylvania— Fruit-culture in Centre County, Pennsylvania — Fruit- culture at the South — Fruits of Vermont— Apples— Pears— Peaches— Apricots — Necta- rines— Quinces — Plums — Cherries—Currants — Grapes and Wine— Strawberries— Raspber- ries—Cranberries— Figs— Oranges— Tamarinds— Olives. Page 226.
Xl CONTENTS.
GARDENING.
Kitchen Garden — Landscape Gardening. Page 322.
LIVE FENCES.
Quickest Hedges — Their Management — Choice of Plants — Evergreens — Trees and Shrubs annually shedding their leaves — Osage Orange. Page 393.
MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. Use of Water passing through Leaden Pipes — Proposed Rule for measuring Bushels. Page 421.
CLIMATOLOGY.
Remarks on the Climate of New England— Periodical Phenomena — Nature, Causes, and Ef- fects of Atmospherical Electricity— Lightning Conductors. Page 342.
COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. Page 476.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS
BY D. J. BROWNE.
REMARKS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.
From patient research and strict inquiry, it is now conceded as an established principle, that the most careful breeding of animals will only fix and make prominent certain peculiar features or "points" which are observed in certain families of the same aboriginal species or sub- species ; aid that the whole world might be challenged to bring evi- dence thai any permanent intermediate variety of quadruped or bird, generated by the crossing of any two wild species which would con- tinue to reproduce offspring like itself, and not finally revert back to one or other original type. In considering the great question of the "im- mutability of the species," so closely allied to the investigation of the different var'eties, as far as the limited researches of physiologists and naturalists have gone, we are led to the conclusion that sub-species and even varieties are much more permanent, independent, and ancient than is at present currently believed. This conviction is founded on the diversities we see even in the most nearly allied races, which, it is most unhesitatingly maintained, are not merely the results of any trans- muting influence of time, variation, or increase of food, change of cli- mate, nor by hybridization, but that each distinct variety, however nearly resembling any other variety, or race, was produced at the be- ginning by a creative power — not by man, nor by his domestication, nor by any inherent tendency in the creatures themselves. Moreover, facts would seem to prove that hybrids, possessed of the power of re- production, are even then saved from being barren only by their pro- geny reverting more or less rapidly to the type of one parent or the other ; so that no intermediate race is founded. Things, sooner or later, either go on as they went before, or they cease to go on at all. This is the case with our domestic animals generally, and is well known to breeders as one of the most inflexible difficulties with which they have to contend, technically called by them "crying back."
Difference in food, change of climate, or other physical conditions to which they might be exposed, it is true, might naturally be expected to produce considerable corresponding modifications in the form, size, color, and coating of animals ; as it is well known that cattle generally be- come very large and fat when reared for many generations on moist
2 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
rich soils, where good pasturage abounds, but are distinguished by the shortness of their legs ; while on drier situations where the herbage is sparse, their whole bulk is less, and their limbs more muscular and strong. A country of heaths, or of other innutritious plants, will not produce a horse so large nor so strong as one of plentiful herbage, as is manifested between those reared on bleak mountains and fertile plains, high latitudes and more temperate climes, sandy deserts and watered vales. A change of situation in the one case, after a succession of gen- erations, not only diminishes the size of the animal, but affects the character and form of his body, head, and limbs. Thus, if a London dray horse be conveyed to Arabia, and subjected to the same influ- ences to which the native breed of that country is exposed, in the course of some generations he will present the leading characters of the Arabian horse. The head gradually diminishes in size, the limbs become fine and clear, the massive proportions of the whole body dis- appear, and not only will the external form of the native Arabian be acquired, but also something of his chivalrous traits. On the con- trary, if the race thus changed be again conveyed to England, in the course of several generations, it will gradually acquire the properties it formerly possessed. This fact would seem to prove that the Arabian horse cannot exist in perfection in any of the northern or western coun- tries of Europe, and that the humidity of the climate and the influence indirectly arising from that cause are the principal reasons of this change. Similar instances might be given in reference to the changes which have been observed in the sheep, the goat, and the hog. The former, when subjected to the climate of the West Indies, from Thibet, Sp^in, or Vermont, where their fleeces are fine, delicate, and soft, after a few years are entirely covered with rough, coarse hair, resembing that of the goat.
The breeding of domestic animals with a view to improvement may be said to be founded on. nature's established law, that "like begets like ;" and this axiom applies not only to the production of the quali- ties of external form and utility, but to the constitutional vigor and the predisposition to disease. This maxim, however, is only true in part, as there is a constant tendency to change, arising from a variety of causes, such as living in a different climate or on a different kind of food, as stated above. The selection and management of the parents and the treatment of the progeny also have their influence ; but these may be regarded as the chief causes in the operation, notwithstanding there are others which are employed to develop and establish the desired quality and form.
In order to improve a race of animals, there are two modes advo- cated and practised by breeders — one commonly called the "in-and-in system," and the other that of "crossing." It was by the former whence sprung the fine cattle and sheep of Bakewell, and the superior cattle of the Ceilings, of England, many years ago, and had the effect, at least, of correcting the prejudice which had previously existed against breed- ing from animals of the same race or blood. But the system of breed- ing in-and-in, it has since been ascertained, has a speedy tendency to degeneracy, and to it must be imputed the absolute disappearance of the New Leicestershire cattle, and in numerous instances the deteriora-
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 3
feon and decreased value of the New Leicestershire sheep and short- horned cattle ; in fact, this system is limited, so far as its benefits are concerned, unless the utmost care be observed in the selection and man- agement of the animals, avoiding everything that can possibly tend to hereditary disease. It has, therefore, become a kind of principle with the most enlightened agriculturists of Europe and this country to effect some change in their stock every few years; and this change is most conveniently brought about by introducing a new ram or bull, which, in the judgment and experience of the breeder, will convince him will be likely to unite in their offspring the qualities sought. From their progeny, again, must be selected only those animals which more com- pletely exhibit the requisite qualities, and so on, from generation to gen- eration, until the character desired is fully developed. The 'mportance of continuing this process for a number of successive generations is ob- vious, from the fact that peculiar traits of character often disappear in the first, and reappear again in the second or third generation. A de- sired character may be found in the parent, and inherited by only a part of the offspring, aud the requisite point can only be uniformly de- veloped by a careful selection through several consecutive generations. By this process, k is apparent that this system must be adopted ; yet, at the same time, it is desirable to avoid too close alliances. Hence, it is considered better to breed more distant members of the same family together than those that are more nearly related.
In improving the breeds of animals, the chief points to be arrived at consist in reducing the parts of the least value to the least possible dimensions, which may be regarded as offal, as the head, neck, legs, &c, while the large quarter, or ham, and deep chest, for fattening, and square, well-set udder, large milk veins, mellow skin, and kind temper for milking qualities, should all be developed to the greatest possible extent. In order to produce these, a strict regard should be paid to pairing, with the view of correcting an imperfection in one animal by a corresponding excellence in another. For the character of the parent is more fully impressed upon the offspring when the former is in the most vigorous period of life. Consequently, neither very young nor very old animals should be selected for the purpose of breeding. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment, and food should be favorable to the object sought, and particular care should be taken to bring the male to the mind and taste of the female, and for the first year, at least, that the young are well supplied with an abundance of nutritious food, and with comfortable shelter and shade. Furthermore, every female, while pregnant, should not only be well fed, but care should be observed that the food be of a proper kind. Let it be re- membered, also, that the growing foetus has blood, flesh, and bones to form, as well as its mother, and therefore a greater proportion than usual of the constituents which go to make these must be supplied by the food of the dam ; otherwise the foetus will suffer as well as its pa- rent. Again, it should be borne in mind that no breeding animal, either male or female, should be made too fat ; for the former would often become too heavy and unwieldy by their joints and sinews being, as it were, possessed with little action or effort, by a load of useless and injurious fat; neither would a female, in a state of pregnancy, be in a
4 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
natural and safe condition, either as regards herself or her young, when thus unnaturally encumbered.
The system of " crossing" is founded on a principle just as secure, as regards care in selection, as that adopted by Bakewell in breeding in-and-in. For it is well known that certain diseases are hereditary, and so is color, none of which can be changed or got rid of, except by crossing. This system, therefore, requires great care in selection, as well as in management. The tendency of "like begetting like," is forcibly illustrated in the results of crossing various breeds of cattle, such as Devons with Hereford s, both the color and form of the parent animals being thereby modified or changed. A cross is comparatively the operation of a moment, and its end once attained, the breeder's object is not to repeat, but to maintain it.
As a general rule, domestic animals of all kinds, which have been produced by crossing, are the most profitable, both for meat and milfe, But in all cases where a cross is attempted, with the object of improving a breed, be sure to have pure blood on one side. Before attending much to the subject, some persons fancy that crossings and intermixtures may be infinitely multiplied and continued, restricted only by the algebraic law of permutation and combination; and such is the current opinion among many who are accustomed to see the divers colors and appear- ance of animals bred promiscuously on the same neighborhood or farm. But the observant breeder knows that such is not the case. For nothing is more difficult than to establish a permanent intermediate race, even between two nearly allied varieties. After a few generations the character reverts to that of one or other of the parents ; the peculiar- ities of an old type reappear, and the new cross, on which the fancier was beginning to glorify himself, vanishes. The more heterogeneous are the parents, the more sudden is the return to old established char- acters. The mongrel progeny are either utterly barren, or their young exhibit the likeness of their grandsire or grand- dam— -not of their actual parents.
HORNED CATTLE.
ORIGIN OF THE BREEDS.
The origin of our domestic animals, as well as the propinquity, or family relation, of the different breeds, has given rise to much fruitless discussion. But the account handed down to us by the sacred historian should be received as satisfactory, and regarded as conclusive by every one. "And out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air, and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them, and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof." At this period, we have reason to believe, there were no wild animals nor hybrids, but one family of each race, unalloyed as to blood, uncoutaminated by disease, and in the highest degree of perfection as to quality. But how many breeds Noah preserved of the anti-deluvian stock, neither sacred nor profane
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. O
writers give any definite information ; while the breeds themselves, in modern times, afford ample materials for endless disquisition. The Mosaic account, for instance, is sufficiently broad to admit of a very wide construction ; for the ox being a clean animal, according to the Adamic dispensation, subsequently re-ratified with the Hebrews at Sinai, either seven kinds or seven couple, (male and female,) of each kind, may have been preserved. The former is a definite number, and may therefore be assumed; but the latter is otherwise, leaving a wide field for the imagination to traverse among the existing breeds. Facts so simply and beautifully expressed as the above are beyond scepticism. One of the most interesting questions to the historian, the naturalist, or the physiologist, is, the distribution of the animal kingdom over the globe, the alienation of many of its members from the domestic society of man, and the almost illimitable extent to which degeneracy and hybridization have taken place throughout the whole. That the differ- ent races were perfect at first cannot be doubted; and the question naturally presents itself, which is now the nearest to the original? In the case of the ox, for instance, is the Shorthorn the best representative of the bovine family? or does the Devon, the Hereford, or the Ayrshire breed, approach nearest to perfection? Or has he descended from the Urns of the ancients, an extinct race, but described by Caesar as inhab- iting the great Hercynian forest? The wild cattle which, at present, most resemble the tame, are those inhabiting the forests of the north- east of Europe, and the race still preserved in their purity at Craven, at Chiilingham Park, and in Scotland; but it is far more likely that they represent a race which has been allowed to change from a state of domestication to wildness. To suppose that our present breeds have descended from the Asiatic gayol, or the bison of either hemisphere, would be a physical impossibility, as each of these species differ mate- rially, in the number of their ribs, from the common ox, besides other anatomical distinctions. The query, then, still remains to be answered, what was the original state? This is a question of fact, and can only be answered from history. But history is silent; her first books have been destroyed by time, and the few lines preserved by Moses are rather calculated to excite than to satisfy our curiosity. Hence nothing is left for us but humbly to assume the garb of ignorance, and ever be deterred from arriving at anything like unanimity in this great work of improvement. Could we analyze the migrations of our own species from clime to clime; could we trace the progress of the human swarms which, in the obscurity of time, have successively advanced from va- rious points, spreading as they have proceeded, sometimes mingling with other nations, sometimes driving the older occupants of the soil before them; could we develop the history of man, the relationship of race to race, and point out their original seats and starting places, then might we be able to throw a clearer light on the origin of our domestic animals; but I maintain most unhesitatingly, as at the beginning, that it was not owing to any inherent tendency in the animals them- selves, nor to man, nor to his domestication, which has produced these diversities, unless we admit that he arranged the strata in the ribs of the earth, and prescribed the everchanging boundaries to the sea. We
6 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
cannot suppose, however, with any consistency, that the existing breeds of cattle in Europe and this country, as they at present appear, are, or ever were, in a pure state, although attempts, very inconsistent in their character, have been made to trace the mongrel progeny to one or more primary breeds.
It would be an important acquisition to the agriculturist, could it be ascertained how many races, or breeds, of cattle there are, and the localities best adapted to their respective constitutions ; as it might afford means for tracing them back to their original purity, and there- fore lay a surer foundation for improvement. The grand object of in- quiry, as it comes home to every farmer, is the breed which best suits his own peculiar circumstances and locality, and the improvement o\ that breed in the highest degree ; in other words, what is the best model of an ox or a cow — one that will return the greatest quantity of butcher's meat or dairy produce, of the best quality, from a given quantity oi foodV What the breed which best suits a particular farm, and what the best mode of bringing it to a comparative state of perfection 1
VARIETIES, BREEDS, OR RACES,
To describe all the breeds of neat cattle in Europe and this country would be a task— would not only be difficult, but in a degree useless. There are certain varieties, however, the characteristics of which are important to be represented, both as regards their peculiar adaptation for particular localities, and for their usefulness for labor, flesh, or milk. Among these may be named the Shorthorns, the Devons, the Herefords, the Ayrshires, the Alderneys, and others, which, it is proposed, are to be described and delineated in this and subsequent Reports.
SHORTHORNED OR DURHAM CATTLE.
The Shorthorned Durham, or more properly, the "Improved Short- horn," it is now unquestionably established, is the most profitable breed of cattle for meat or milk extant, provided they are furnished with a sufficiency of healthful and nutritious food, and are judiciously bred. The reasons for this are obvious enough, as no animal arrives so easily at maturity, few supply meat superior in quality, and none give a greater abundance of milk than it does, when properly crossed with other breeds. It has sometimes been urged, however, that Shorthorn cows are liable to obesity, patchiness, or a defective state of the adipose tissue, plethora, scrofula, and their consequents — chronic or acute pleu- risy and pneumonia, phythisis, and other pulmonary complaints, milk fever, &c, &c. The majority of these diseases, it is true, is unfortu- nately the case, and no doubt, in many instances, they are hereditary. But, admitting such to be the fact, it by no means follows that the Short- horns are more subject to the above named complaints than the Here- fords and Devons, nor even so much so ; for the fact of earlier maturity being in favor of the former, proves the greatest degree of health, while experience corroborates more forcibly this conclusion. It has also oc- casionally been asserted that, in another particular, the Shorthorns are
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 7
deficient; that is, they are considered to be but indifferent milkers. This objection can readily be overcome by crossing the best imported shorthorned breeds with our ordinary cows, by means of which good milkers can generally be insured.
The merit of laying the foundation of this breed has been conceded to Charles Colling, of Ketton, near Darlington, in England; but that Improved Shorthorns existed long before his day cannot be doubted, as the spirit of improvement in the breeders of the Old Shorthorn com- menced in the valley of the Tees as early as the year 1750, which re- sulted in the improved modern breed. These efforts, begun by Sir William Quintin and carried on by Mr. Milbank, of Barmingham, were nearly perfected by Colling, whose principal success appears to have been in the formation of a proper conception of what this breed should be, both as to handle and symmetry, as well as the careful se- lection of such from a comparatively degenerate race, and judiciously breeding from them afterwards. The original " Teeswater," together with the still coarser breed known in the East Riding of Yorkshire as the " Holderness," especially the latter, was " a large ungainly ani- mal, generally deficient in his fore quarters, with strong shoulders, slow and unprofitable to feed, as well as being but a middling beast for the butcher. The meat was coarse to the palate and uninviting to the eye." There was thus plenty of room, if not much encouragement, for producing something better ; and the task was undertaken and en- tered into with as much spirit as discrimination by Charles Colling, conjointly with Robert his brother. The success of these gentlemen was, from the first, considerable. They produced, by judicious selec- tions and crossings, the celebrated bull " Hubback," from which are descended the best Shorthorns of our day. His origin, as well as pedi- gree, is, of course, somewhat difficult to trace. The most authentic record of this bull we find in the following extract of a letter from John Hunter, jr., of Hur worth, near Darlington, coupled with his full pedi- gree, dated July 6, 1822, as given b}^ Mr. George Coates, who was a contemporary of the brothers Colling: "I remember the cow which my father bred that wras the dam of Hubback ; there was no idea that she had any mixed or Kyloe blood in her. Much has been lately said that she was descended from a Kyloe, but I have no reason to believe, nor do I believe, that she had any mixture of Kyloe blood m her."
PEDIGREE.
"Hubback, (319,) yellow, red, and white, calved in 1777, bred by Mr. John Hunter, of Hurworth; got by Mr. George Snowdon's bull, (612) ; his dam, (bred by Mr. Hunter,) by a bull of Mr. Bankes', of Hurworth; g. d. bought of Mr. Stephenson, of Ketton." Snowdon's bull, (612,) it may be remarked, was directly descended from the cele- brated Studley bull, (626,) believed to be the first recorded Shorthorn known.
Hubback was bought out of a by-lane or £8, and his success was as remarkable as it was profitable to his owners. His subsequent career, with his descendants Foijambe, Bolingbroke, Favorite, and Comet, together with their numerous progeny, permanently established
8 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the breed, or variety of breed, at present so widely known and cele brated as the "Improved Shorthorn" in Europe and America.
The valley of the Tees powerfully presents the truth of that axiom, recognized by all thorough breeders, that "Good cattle are coincident with good soil, and are never found, as a race, on a bad one." The character of the soil and climate of this valley, so intimately connected with the origin and history of these cattle, may be placed as a preface to their rise, progress, perfection, and present wide diffusion ; for no- where in the world can there be found richer, better, nor more produc- tive pastures, notwithstanding the severity of the climate is such that they are house-fed from five to six months in the year. The weather is cool and moist in summer, very rainy, wet, and bleak in winter, with not much continuous freezing, and but little fall of snow.
Geographically, though originally confined to the region of the Tees, the Shorthorns are now dispersed in almost every part of England, as well as in some parts of Scotland, where they thrive equally well, the numberVof herds in that kingdom amounting at present to upwards of five hundred, and the animals anually registered in the Herd Book exceeding six thousand. In France, Belgium, Italy, Prussia, Russia, and other parts of continental Europe, we find this breed as highly prized and almost as much sought after as in England. Again, we see them annually and progressively extending to Australia, New Zealand, Canada, New Brunswick, Cuba, Mexico, and our own country, where they improve every breed with which they are crossed. Within the last ten years a large number of bulls and cows of this race has been purchased from the best herds in England, at most extraordinary prices, and imported into the United States, the progeny of which are distributed in every section, where they are annually increasing, and becoming more than ever in public favor.
The Shorthorns vary in color, ranging from pure white to a bright rich red. The most fashionable of all, at the present day, is a mixture of the two, forming a deep or light roan, sometimes called hazel, or straw- berry, as indicated in the cow " Fidelle," on plate 1. Color, how- ever, should never be regarded as an objection to the real value of the animal, as the cow crossed by the same bull will often throw three different colors in as many calves. It may not be known to all that there are certain prejudices against white, in contradistinction to which, it only may be necessary to state that some of the very best animals in England have been white, or nearly so, as was instanced in the bull " Wiseton," bred and owned by the late Earl Spencer, and portrayed on plate 2 in this Report. Still, to correct this prejudice, or, perhaps, to act only in obedience to the fashion or taste in some parts of the Union, the red is now become more esteemed, as from it, when crossed with the white, there is frequently produced the most brilliant and favorite of the roans.
Before adverting to the properties of these animals, it may be advisa- ble, in the first instance, to designate the points by which they are characterized in the following diagram :
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
11
8 5 4
No 1, indicates the nose, or muzzle; 2, the forehead; 3, the horns ; 4, the neck; 5, the top of the plate-bones; 6, the shoulder-point; 7, the breast ; 8, the chine, or back; 9, the loin; 10, the hip, or huckle-bones; 11, the first touch, or tip of the rump; 12, the thigh; 13, the hough, or hock ; 14, the hind-leg ; 15, the feet, or claws ; 16, the flank ; 17, the belly; 18, the brisket; 19, the shoulder; 20, the fore-leg; 21, the round, or pot-bone; 22, the under jaw; 23, the chap; 24, the ribs.
The diagram below will illustrate many of the points of the internal structure of the ox, to which reference often is made :
49, 47 4fi 45
No 1, denotes the temporal bone ; 2, the frontal bone, or bone of the forehead; 3, the orbit of the eye ; 4, the lachrymal bone; 5, the malar or cheek-bone; 6, the upper jaw bone; 7, the nasal bone, or bone of the nose ; 8, the nippers, found on the lower jaw alone ; 9, the eight true ribs ; 10, the humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder ; 11, the sternum, or breast bone ; 12, the ulna collar, its upper part forming the elbow; ]3, the ulna; 14, the radius, or principal bone of the arm; 15, the small bones of the knee; 16, the large metacarpal or shank-bone; 17, the bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot ; 18, the sessamoid bones ; 19, the bifurcation of the pasterns ; 20
10 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the lower jaw and the grinders ; 21, the vertebras, or bones of the neck ; 22, the navicular bones ; 23, the two coffin bones to each foot ; 24, the two smaller pasterns to each foot; 25, the smaller or splint-bone ; 26, the false ribs, with their cartilages; 27, the patella, or bone of thekeee ; 28, the small bones of the hock; 29, the metatarsals, or larger bones ot the hind leg; 30, the pasterns and feet; 31, the small bones of the hock; 32, the point of the hock; 33, the tibia, or leg-bone proper; 34, the thigh bone ; 35, the bones of the tail ; 36, 37, the haunch and pelvis; 38, the sacrum; 39, the bones of the loin ; 40, the bones of the back; 41, the ligament of the neck, and its attachments; 42, tne scapular, or sh6ulder blade; 43, the bones of the back; 44, the ligament of the neck; 45, the dentata ; 46, the atlas ; 47, the occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head ; 48, a parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa ; 49, the horns, being processes, or continuations, of the frontal bones.
CHARACTERISTICS, OR POINTS, OF THE SHORTHORN.
The appearance and points of this breed may be thus briefly summed up from the " Encyclopaedia of Agriculture : " "The head of the mate animal is short, but at the same time fine ; very broad across the eyes, but gradually tapering to the nose, the nostril of which is lull and prominent; the nose itself of a rich flesh color, neither too light nor dark ; eyes bright and placid, with ears somewhat large and thin. The head, crowned with a curved and rather flat horn, is well set on a lengthy, broad, muscular neck ; the chest wide, deep, and projecting ; shoulders fine, oblique, and well formed into the chine ; lore-legs short, with the upper arm large and powerful ; barrel round, deep, and well ribbed up towards the loins and hips, which should be wide and level; back straight from the withers, [top of the plate bones,] to the setting on of the tail, but still short; that is, from hip to the chine, the opinion of many good judges being that a beast should have a short back, with a long frame. As a consequence of this, the hind quarter must, itself, be lengthy, but well filled in. The symmetry of frame at present to be found in a well-bred Shorthorn reaches as near perfection as possible, while few animals 'handle' so well, or to use a more technical phrase, have so ' fine and mellow a touch.' The hair is plentiful, soft, and mossy, with a hide not too thin, and, in fact, somewhat approaching the feeling of velvet. The female enjoys nearly all the same characteristics as the above, with the exception of her head being finer, longer, and more tapering; her neck thinner and altogether lighter, and her shoulders more inclined to narrow towards the chine."
To the foregoing I will add the description of a thorough-bred Short- horned bull, cow, and calf, by Mr. William Davis, of Chelsea, near London, a gentleman who has been engaged many years in painting most of the prize animals in Great Britain, and who is well qualified to judge of their characteristics, or points: "As to the general shape and qualities of a Shorthorned bull, his form should be symmetrical and level, with the shoulder or blade-bone slanting to the spine or back- bone; the ribs springing out like a barrel; hip-bone full and long from the hip to the insertion of the tail, hind-quarter long from the tail to
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 11
near the hough, or hock, forming nearly a square from the tall to the flank ; the fore quarters deep and breast-point near to the knee ; wide between the fore-legs, and thick through the region of the heart, which is a sign of a good constitution; hind and fore-legs showing substance to the knee, and from the latter small but short-boned to the hoof; the under part of the abdomen nearly straight, which indicates but little garbage or offal. The head should be neat, well set, and rather high, with rough, curly hair on the forehead; horns rather stout, protruding straight from the head, turning up a little at their points or towards the forward; eye full; nose of a pale flesh color, with the muzzle small. Colors red or grey roan, mingled with white, pure white, red and white, in patches ; blood red with an orange tint about the eye and nose, and sometimes a small white patch about the abdomen and flanks.
" A Shorthorned cow should have length of carcass, a light neck with the shoulder well back, and the ribs springing from the spine round, showing a good breadth of back; length from the hip-bone to the tail, which should have a square projecting rump, forming an angle; hind quarters long, extending nearly to the hough ; flank low down near the milk bag, which should be nearly level with the hough ; fore and hind-legs stout, but with small bones from the knee to the hoof; abdomen straight; head neat and rather up; light in the horns, which should project straight from the head, and turning in a little towards the forehead; eye full; muzzle small; depth of fore quarters; thick through the heart, and colors as in the male.
"A Shorthorned calf should have his bones well placed, without which the most careful feeding in the world would never make him a well- formed animal when grown; shoulder slanting; carcass long, with good wide hip-bones ; length from the hip to the tail, with a square rump like an angle; length of quarter ; legs short and fine in the bone; head neat and clean, and light under the throat.
" What is denominated a good handler should have the skin rather elastic, with the hair loose, and feel like velvet to the touch. On the contrary, some animals have a harsh coat, which is called wiry and not good. If any black hairs are found about the head or other parts, especially the muzzle, it is an indication that the animal is spurious, or mixed."
CONDENSED CORRESPONDENCE
Statement of Anderson Gordon, of Lewisburg, Conway county, Arkansas*
Stock of all kinds do well in this county, particularly cattle, horses, and hogs. We have no imported animals. Cattle are raised at a cost of from $3 to $5 a head, at the age of three or four years. The cost of transportation from here to New Orleans, our usual market, is from $4 to $6 a head. Oxen bring, there, from $35 to $60 a yoke; cows and calves from $10 to $20 each ; neat cattle from $5 to $15 each. Beef is worth from 3 to 5 cents a pound. We have no milk, butter, nor cheese for export.
12 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Statement of Gideon Lane, of Killingworth, Middlesex county, Con- necticut.
The cost of raising young cattle here till three years old is about $25 a head. The usual price at that age is from $25 to $50 each.
I have had considerable experience in raising both the imported and common breeds; and I think that a given amount of food will produce more meat in the Durham than in the common animal, or any other.
Statement of E. Babcock, of Riley, Mc Henry county, Illinois.
At present, the expense of cattle running on the prairies of this re- gion is not taken into account, other than a little care in looking after them, and furnishing them occasionally with salt. Of late, some good imported animals have been introduced into the State. Much of what is regarded as common stock is a mixture of Longhorned Durhams Shorthorns, and Devons.
Wild hay is generally worth, with us, about $2 per ton. One ton oi hay per head, with the gleanings of the corn fields and corn shucks, and perhaps two bushels of corn each, is sufficient for the winter. Say $5 per head ibr winter-keeping, and $1 more will cover all expenses for the year.
Neat cattle, at three years old, are worth about $30 each. Cows a^e worth from $24 to $28. Cost of transporting from Chicago to New York, per railroad, from $14 to $16 a head.
Statement of Martin Moxdf, of Vermilion county, Illinois.
Cattle are the principal stock with us. The cost of raising a three- year-old steer is about $15 ; worth from $20 to $30. Our ordinary cattle are of good size, much larger than those in the States east of us. We have the Durhams in considerable numbers, and of pure blood. In my opinion, across of three-quarters Durham and one-quarter ordinary blood makes the best stock. Our common stock is best for the dairy.
Statement of Joseph C. Orth, of McClearfs Bluff, Wabash county, Illi-
nois.
This kind of farm stock is very profitable in some instances, while in others but little can be made out of them. Farms contiguous to the river "bottoms" are generally well calculated for cattle, having the benefit of wild upland pastures during the summer, and the rich grass and cane pastures of the bottoms in the winter, for their sustenance. Only a few cows are kept for their milk, except for family use, and sometimes a very little in the shape of butter for sale. Of late, a few of our enterprising farmers have introduced the Durham breed; but beyond this, I doubt whether we have any improved breeds.
A good cow will command $25; but the average value, perhaps, is not over $16. Oxen, also, are coming much in use. Nearly every farmer in my neighborhood is the owner of at least one yokes whereas but a Jew years ago, scarcely an ox could be seen. For many pur-
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 13
poses, where fast travelling is not the object sougnt, they are found to answer a purpose full equal to the horse, while the cost of keeping and rearing is probably not over half. They sell at from $40 to $100 a pair.
Statement of A. J. Boone, of Lebanon, Boone county, Indiana.
There are, yet, no imported cattle in this county, but laudable efforts are being made for the improvement of stock generally. Crosses of the Durham with the common cattle have proved advantageous for beef, milk, and labor.
The selling price of cattle with us varies from $15 to $30 each, at three }^ears old. Milch cows are worth from $15 to $50 each, as they come in.
Statement of H. F. Moore, of Big Mound, Lee county, Iowa.
Cattle, here, are a great article of trade, for home use, the East, and California. A considerable interest is taken to introduce the best breeds, such as the Durhams, Devons, &c.
The average price of steers, at three years old, is $21 ; at four years old, $27. Working oxen bring from $50 to $90 a yoke.
Statement of Admiral B. Miller and Joseph Brobst, of Knoxville,
Marion county, Iowa.
Cattle are found to be the most profitable stock raised here. They are now sold mostly to California emigrants. We have no imported cattle.
Statement of J. W. Raynolds, of Ntwbern, Marion county, Iowa.
The cost of raising a steer till three years old is about $12. Some corn is given to calves the first winter; afterwards they are kept on hay made from the native prairie grasses, or on corn fodder. Cows are worth, here, from $25 to $30; calves from $5 to $7. Steers, at three years of age, are worth $25 each.
Statement of Hugh M. Thomson, near Davenport, Scott county, Iowa,
With few exceptions, the horned cattle of this section may be called common. These exceptions are crosses with the Shorthorn, or Dur- ham, one or two bulls of that breed having been introduced into this and the adjoining county of Clifton, from Kentucky ; and certainly the stock is greatly improved. Common cows are worth from $25 to $40 each, while those half bred will bring from $50 to $100.
I am not aware that any half-bred cattle have been tried as working oxen in this section. Good common steers are worth from &70 to
14 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
the pair, at three years old ; and the average price of fair oxen,, is about $100 per yoke. Single animals are worth, at one year old, $15 ; at two years, from $20 to $25 ; and at three years, the same as cows.
Statement of Samuel D. Martin, near Pine Grove, Clarice county, Ken- tucky,
We have a great number of imported cattle and their descendants, in this and the adjoining counties. Our Shorthorn stock comes from the best blood known in the English Herd Book. The first cross of a Shorthorn upon an ordinary cow produces so decided an improvement, that the animal is worth about twice as much at any period of its life. Each succeeding cross adds to the value of the progeny.
The Shorthorn cattle are the best for milk and beet of any I have ever had. I have owned several cows, each of which would give over 30 quarts of milk a day, having an average of 10 per cent, ol cream.
1 have kept up the good milking qualities of .my herd by breeding only from bulls descended from great milkers. But I believe the milking qualities are more certainly to be obtained from the mother than from the father. Many years ago, I purchased two cows of the Shorthorn stock; one was a constant milker, giving 32 quarts of milk daily ; the other gave about two quarts daily. These cows were taken to the same bulls, the first produced fine milkers, without an exception. From the other, I did not get a cow that was worth anything, as a milker, until the fourth or fifth generation ; and even then, they were not good enough to induce me to keep the breed, and the whole race was sold to the butchers. But they were always fat, while the progeny of the first cow were invariably lean when in milk, but fattened quickly when dry. The steers from the first cow fattened as quickly as the steers from the second.
I always employ oxen on my farm, and have worked those of every breed we have among us. The Herefords are excellent workers, and pull evenly. Bat they are harder to break in, and are apt to be more vicious than the Shorthorns.
I prefer the Shorthorns for oxen, for the following reasons : They are gentle and docile, easily broken in and managed, strong, and true in pulling, are not vicious among other stock, antl when they have worked five or six years, are easily fitted for the butcher, who will pay a good price for them. The objection that they get too fat to work is easily obviated by keeping them continually employed.
The ordinary cattle make good oxen, but do not possess near the power of the two breeds above mentioned. Still they have an advantage over heavier breeds in freezing weather, in not having their teet cut by the frozen ground. We never have our oxen shod. Plowing is generally better done by oxen than by horses. They plow deeper and more evenly.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 15
Statement of Robert W. Scott, of Locust Hill Farm, Franklin county
Kentucky.
I have been a breeder of Durham cattle for more than twenty years, and now have a respectable herd of them, of both sexes, and of vari- ous ages : and as I have found them, in all respects, well suited to the wants and condition of the Western farmer, I expect to continue to breed them as long a& I live.
Statement of Edward F. Garland, of Aroostook, (No. 11, range b,) Aroostook county, Maine.
Neat cattle have been much improved the last few years in this sec- tion. We have no full bloods, but crosses of several breeds. Very little corn is used in fattening; most of our beef is made from grass and root crops. Three-year-old steers are now worth $65 and $70 a pair. Cows are worth, in the fall, $18 and $20 each ; in the soring, from $30 to $35.
Statement of Howard M. Atkins, of Mount Vernon, Kennebec county,
Maine.
The Dunhams and Herefords, crossed with our common stock, are the standard cattle in this vicinity. The Ayrshires are beginning to be introduced, but not in sufficient numbers to allow of the forming of an opinion in regard to their capabilities for the yoke or the dairy. The Durhams or the Herefords, crossed with our common cattle, make ex- cellent animals for both. The oxen are generally strong and well made, easily fattened, and make fine beef. The cows are usually kind and docile, good for milk and butter. It is a common thing for cow to make from 12 to 15 pounds of butter a week.
1 bV
Statement of Francis Fuller, of Winthrop, Kennebec county, Maine.
We have imported Durham, Hereford, and Ayrshire cattle; but grade Durhams have been the most used among us, and have given the best satisfaction for milk, flesh, and labor. Grade Herefords have also been tried, and found to be valuable for flesh as well as for work. The Devon, Ayrshire, and Jersey breeds have not yet been much tried.
The cost of raising a heifer to the age of two years, or the period she first gives milk, is about $15. The cost of a steer at that age would be about the same. A good cow, giving milk, is worth from $20 to $40. A yoke of steers, two years old, will sell from $40 to $60, according to beauty and size. Beef, with us, on the hoof, is worth horn $5 to $6 per hundred.
16 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Statement of Eusebius Weston, of Bloomfield, Somerset county, Mai^e
Stock-raising of all kinds, for several years past, has yielded to lum- bering, but is now on the increase. The Herefords, Durhams, and Ayrshires have been introduced among us, and their crosses upon our common stock have succeeded well. Hereford cows are the best milkers of the imported breeds; but our ordinary cows are as good milkers as any. Cost of transportation to Boston about $2 a head. There is a demand for most of our cattle among the lumbermen.
Statement of William Bacon, of Richmond, Berkshire county, Massa- chusetts.
It is very common to meet fine Devons, approaching very nearly to the English models of this beautiful and serviceable breed. Probably from one-half to three-fourths of the neat cattle of this region are more or less tinctured with Devon blood. The common stock has been much improved by crosses of this breed.
Statement of C. F. Mallory, of Romeo, Macomb county, Michigan,
We have no full blooded imported cattle that I am aware of. Cost of raising till three years old, $5 a year. Expense of getting to market, about $3 a head.
Statement of J. D. Yerkes, of Northville, Wayne county, Michigan.
Our agricultural societies exhibit the gratifying evidence of a very decided improvement in our stock of cattle. The Durhams are the favorites of most farmers, although some p^efe the Devons. For early maturity and excellent fattening qualities, the w horns are unrivalled. A cross of the Devons on our common stock produces well-formed animals, of medium size, and are almost invariably of a deep red color. For working oxen, they are readily matched, and combine muscular power with speed and activity.
Statement of C. E. Potter, of Manchester, Hillsborough county, New
Hampshire.
Of cattle ,.the "Durhams," or "Shorthorns," have been introduced, and the blood, pure or mixed, is diffused throughout the State. Wher- ever they are found they maintain their reputation, and are highly prized.
In the valley of the Merrimack, pure "Devons" are more generally bred than any other blooded stock; but I am inclined to the opinion that they ;ire becoming of less repute than formerly. They are hand- some, iine-limbed animals, of a "taking" color, of an easy, swift movement, and "answer" well upon light, level lands; but in our hilly, mountainous region, their size forbids their making suitable oxen
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 17
for work, and from being profitable for the shambles. So that, aside from their capacity as milkers, which is a mooted point, their usefulness for labor, and their value for beef, the Devons must fall behind several other breeds. When crossed, however, with our "common cattle," an improvement, perhaps, may be obtained upon the color and activity of the one, and on the size and weight of the other. Yet for working cattle only, it will be hard to improve upon the descendants of our original sort; for certainly, our oxen now, in docility and capacity for labor, are equal, if not superior, to those of any country on the globe.
Live cattle, upon an average, can be transported from this State to the Cambridge market, near Boston, lor $1 50 per head.
Statement of A. G. Comings, of Mason, Hillsborough county, New
Hampshire.
The Ayrshire and Devon cattle have been introduced, to some ex- tent, into this county. The Ayrshires, with plenty of sweet food, recommend themselves well. Our farmers, however, pay compara- tivel}' little attention to the cultivation of the sweet grasses, clover, &c.
The Devons readily appropriate the sour grasses to their support. They do well upon meadow hay, and grow finely in our old, sour pas- tures. They are gentle under the yoke, and approved for various other good qualities. Hence they are fast gaining favor with us. They receive flesh and fat with sufficient readiness to prepare them for resisting the severity of our climate. Governor Steele, of this State, has assured me that some of his young cattle of ordinary breed cost him nearly twice as much to keep through the winter as his Devons of the same age. It is evident that these advantages are the consequence of constitutional peculiarities which the Devons possess, and which par- ticularly adapts them to our soil and climate.
In fattening some oxen, a year since, I made an attempt to produce ox beef which should be in tenderness, sweetness, &c, equal to the finest beef produced from young cattle. To do this, I supplied them with what would most rapidly form lean flesh, and kept them from any exercise, which would harden the muscles. At the same time, they were fed with corn, to produce fat. They had also the best turnips, with cabbages, sugar beets, beans, &c, and hay. They weretwooxen, and the result was the same in both instances, the production of beef of the most delicious sweetness, finely streaked throughout with fat and lean, and of the utmost tenderness. I have never seen it sur- passed, and yet it was produced without extra expense.
Statement of Norman H. Allen, of Persia, near Gowan&a, Cattaraugus
county, New York,
Neat cattle, in this county, are raised to a considerable extent. Eng- lish or blooded animals are worth from 10 to 50 per cent, more than our common stock, and cost but a little more for raising, except the first year. 2
18 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Common cows are worth from $25 to $40 ; grade Durhams from $30 to $80 each in spring, and from $10 to $15 less in the fall.
Statement of Lorenzo Rouse, of Paris Hill, Oneida county, New York.
T,he rearing of cattle for market, except improved breeds, is not gen- erally considered profitable in our county. Durhams and Devons are bred to some extent among us, and with considerable success, being sold at a profit to those who purchase for the purpose of improving their stock; but horned cattle are not raised very extensively for market. Many are fed in this portion of the county ; but our farmers wTho turn their attention to this branch of business find that they can usually pur- chase steers three or four years of age at a cheaper price than they can afford to raise them. The cost of* raising a steer till three years old would usually be about $25 to $30, but they are generally obtained by picking them up singly about the country, or by purchasing from droves, which come annually from the West, usually from Ohio. Some of our farmers find a profit in stall-feeding their cattle in the winter, thereby not only making a home market for their root and grain crops, but greatly increasing their supply of manure. Sua ess in either case will depend, as a matter of course, in a great degree on judgment in pur- chasing, skill in feeding, and frequently on luck in marketing.
Our store cattle are principally crosses of the improved breeds, and consist mainly of cows kept for domestic use, or for the purposes of the dairy. These are of such a mixed breed that it would be hardly pos- sible to determine what blood predominates. Crosses between the Dur- hams and our common stock are thought by many to make the best milkers ; while others consider a cross with the Devons fully equal, if not preferable. Cases are by no means rare in which cows of what is usually termed the " native breed " are found equally as good milkers as any among the various kinds of imported stock. This remark may not be equally true, however, in regard to their aptness to take on fat, when it is found advisable to fit them for the shambles.
Statement of S. A. Collins, of Sodus, Wayne county, New York.
This county has not heretofore been a stock-raising region. Wheat and other grains have been the principal crops; but the "insect" and weevil have become so destructive to our wheat that more attention than formerly is given to raising domestic animals. A few cattle are sent to the Eastern market. The cost of raising cattle till three years old is not far from $25 a head ; at that age they bring from $25 to $50. Cost of transportation to New York from $4 to $6 a head.
We prefer the Devons to any other breed ; they are hardy and easily kept. The oxen are quick, active and docile, and the cows are excel- lent milkers, averaging two pounds of buUer a day each, with good eed.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 19
Statement of S. S. G. Franklin, of Cuba, Clinton county, Ohio.
A few good cattle are raised in this county. The first crosses of the Durhams with our common stock are considered best for beef.
The cost of raising a steer three years old is $24, or $8 a year. A good pair at that age will bring from $50 to $90. Milch cows are worth from $25 to $50 each.
Statement of Elias Green, of Wakeman, Huron county, Ohio.
Much attention is given to the raising of stock by our farmers ; and some fine animals have lately been introduced for the improvement of our common breed. Calves, during the first winter, should have care- ful attention. My practice is to give them fresh feed through the fall, with salt regularly, in order to have them fat, if possible, at the com- mencement of winter. To prevent their wasting hay, I make a box say 16 feet in length, 3 feet in width, and 18 inches in depth, with a rib running lengthwise over the top, to prevent their getting into it. Such a box will accommodate 20 calves.
Statement of C. Jacobs, of Dayton, Yam Hill county, Oregon.
Cattle are raised here in great numbers, both the imported English and their crosses with the Spanish breeds.
For milking.qualities the pure English bloods are preferred; for beef no choice is made ; for working oxen preference is given to the crosses, as being more sprightly and nervous. The cost of raising cattle is only trifling, because it is seldom that they have to be provided with food during the whole winter. The price of cows at the present time varies from $40 to $60 each. Working oxen bring from $100 to $125 a pair.
Statement of 'George Buchanan, Samuel Gilliland, James T. Hale, David Duncan, and William P. Fisher, being that portion of their report which relates to cattle, addressed to the Centre County Agricultural Society of Pennsylvania.
The great majority of cattle in this county are of the common stock, small in size, and without any particular quality to recommend them ; yet, while deficient in form, there are some excellent milch cows among them. With proper care good dairies can be selected.
The Durham and other improved breeds are far superior in point of symmetry, which increases their value greatly when taken to the sham- bles, and their milking qualities are not to be surpassed by any in the country. If we had the breeds established or improved, the raising of cattle for the shambles would be a profitable business ; but, owing to the carelessness of most of our farmers in the selection of their breeding animals, there is nothing more than the shadow of an improvement made yet. This carelessness, in a great measure, is attributable to the loose- ness of our laws, in giving the citizens a privilege to turn their " scrub
20 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Dulls" into the public highway, to roam at large, to the injury of their neighbors.
Statement of Zeno P. Wharton, of Egypt, Wharton county, Texas.
We have no breeds of cattle, except the Mexican stock, which the Americans found in the country when they first came here. The oxen are of large size, and make good teams. The cows are good milkers. The beef of these cattle is very excellent. The cost of raising cattle on our prairies is almost nothing. At three years old they are worth $12 a head; at five years old $16. Cost of driving to the Gulf markets, $1 50 a head.
A few Durham bulls were brought into this vicinity from the Western States. But, from the abundance of food, they soon became so large and strong as to be dangerous to our herds, and were, consequently, shot. Therefore we had not an opportunity of ascertaining the results of a cross upon our common stock.
Statement of William Smoot, of Boone Court House, Virginia.
I am of the opinion that the Durhams crossed with our " scrub cattle," are far better for this mountainous region than the full bloods. There is but little grazing done here on enclosed ground, the stock- raisers herd their cattle amidst their mountainous range.
Statement of Dr. Henry M. Price, of Nicholas Court House, Virginia.
The cattle of this county usually are sold to the " valley farmers," to be fattened for market, at four years old. The cost of raising to this age is about $2 or $3 a year. They sell for from $18 to $22 each. Cows are worth from $20 to $25.
DAIRIES.
CONDENSED CORRESPONDENCE.
Statement of Edward F. Garland, of Aroostook, (No. 11, range b,) Aroostook county, Maine.
But little attention has hitherto been paid to the dairy. Increased interest, however, is now beginning to be manifested, as we have a good market for all its products. Cheese is made during the hot summer months, and butter during the rest of the year. The average product is about 100 pounds of cheese, and 150 pounds of butter to each cow. Average price of butter 20 cents a pound ; of cheese I2J cents.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
21
Statement of Francis Fuller, of Winthroy, Kennebec county, Maine.
Butter, at present, owing to the drought, sells with us from 20 to 25 cents per pound, which would be profitable to the farmer; but, in ordinary seasons, it is worth only from 12J to 17 cents. Cheese, at present, sells with us for 10 to 12 J cents per pound.
Statement of Norman H. Allen, of Persia, near Goivanda, Cattaraugus
county, New York.
A good cow in this region will produce 150 pounds of butter, and from 350 to 400 pounds of cheese a year. The present price of butter is from 15 to 20 cents per pound ; of cheese from 7 to 10 cents.
Statement of Josiah Southwick, of Evans, Erie county, New York, showing the number of quarts of milk given by six cows during the year 1854.
Cows.
No. 1. No. 2
No. 3!
No. 4. No. 5. No. 6
January . . February . March April ....
May
June
July
August . . . September October . . . November December.
195 300 364 310 290 200 200 185 150
55 362 390 320 228 190 183 100
80 362 400 330 290 220 215 175 150
166 90 35 156 362 390 340 350 266 240 205 165
54
250 205 210 256 290 290 228 220 205 144 120
140 260 300 280 228 210 215 144 125
Total. Value
2,334
1,954
2,298
2,472
1,902
$43 00
$34 30
$41 09
$51 49
$46 19
$34 46
The milk was sold at our railroad station for just one-half the retail price in Buffalo ; so that the value in that city would have been double the sum given above. The price varied in different seasons of the year. In Buffalo, during January and December, it was 5 cents a quart ; during May, June, and July, 3 cents ; and during the remain- ing months 4 cents a quart.
Statement of Lorenzo Rouse, of Paris Hill, Oneida county, New York.
Dairies in this vicinity comprise from ten to fifty cows each. The average product may be estimated at 120 pounds of butter, or 250 to 275 pounds of cheese to a cow. The business has been uniformly good for several years, and nearly all our farmers are engaged in it to some extent; some in connexion with other branches of agriculture, and others to the exclusion of nearly everything else. This was once a
22 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
great wool-growing county, but as our flocks of sheep have dimin- ished, the number of cows has increased in proportion. The ruling price for butter through the season has been about 20 cents, and cheese 8J cents per pound.
Statement of Raleigh W. Dyer, ofPrillaman's, Franklin county, Virginia.
Butter is not produced in large quantities in this section, nor is it so rich and good as it should be, because but little pasturage has yet been provided for our cattle, as the natural range of country suitable for grazing is now nearly exhausted. Our farmers, however, are begin- ning to turn their attention to this subject. The cost of producing butter is about 7 cents a pound. It is worth in market from 12J to 19 cents per pound, according to quality.
Statement of Dr. Henry M. Price, of Nicholas Court House, Virginia.
The cows in this region average about 8 quarts of milk a day. Fine samples of butter are made, which sell from 10 to 12J cents a pound, of -an excellent quality. Cheee is worth from 8 to 10 cents.
HORSES, ASSES, AND MULES.
CONDENSED CORRESPONDENCE.
Statement of J. H. Forman, of Oak Bowery, Chambers county, Alabama.
The animals affording the most profit to the stock-raiser in this sec- tion are horses, mules, swine, &c, neat cattle and sheep being less profitable than cotton. Horses and mules can be raised to three years old at an expense of $35, and will then sell at $100 each.
Our horses' are derived from the Four-mile racers, but have vastly degenerated, besides being deficient in bone, for the correction of which there has recently been a considerable importation from Canada of a breed obtained from a cross between the Canadian and the old Norman horses. Although time has not fully developed the results of this cross upon our own stock, we feel justified, from present appearances of the progeny, to indulge favorable hopes of improvement. It has frequently been urged that mules consume less food than horses. I have failed to discover the difference, but am satisfied that animals of both classes of equal size, and performing the same labor, require the same amount of food. Nor have I discovered, during an observation of 25 years, that horses properly treated are more subject to disease than mules. I maintain that the opposite opinion, which is so prevalent, has resulted from a want of attention to the difference in their dispositions. The horse, being excitable and suspicious, is easily urged to a most ruinous amount
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 23
of exertion, especially as to speed; but the mule, being calm and perti- nacious, is frequently able to resist all the stimulants to over exertion, and thus accommodate his labor to his capacity. Hence, the disposition of the horse adapts him to emergencies requiring speed, while that of the mule, properly trained, favors longevity and heavy drafts. Their early education requires the same management, namely: kindness, familiarity, and firmness. The same treatment that overcomes the suspicion and irritability of the horse disarms the obduracy of the mule. The term " breaking" is a misnomer, as applied to them, as it implies a destruction of vitality and energy, which is an irretrievable loss. He must not be broken, but inured to labor, and this so gradually that he will hardly know where pastime ends and labor begins. Very few horses or mules which have been broken are reliable in emergencies, and many are injured for life by the operation.
Brood mares may be moderately worked, when not suckling or very heavy, without detriment. They require the different changes of diet which the product of the several seasons provide and suggest, and a shelter from all inclement weather. At all other times open air is best.
Statement of Anderson Gordon, of Lewisburg, Conway county, Arkansas.
Horses are raised here, at a cost of from $30 to $40 each at the age of three or four years. Cost of transportation to New Orleans, from $6 to $10 a head. They are worth in that market from $75 to $125 each.
We also raise some mules, which are our most serviceable animals. They cost from $25 to $40 a head when three or four years old, and sell in New Orleans for from $50 to $150 each.
Statement of E. Babcock, of Riley, Mc Henry county, Illinois.
Nearly every farmer with us keeps from two to six horses ; yet this class of stock is very scarce, and commands a high price. Good farm horses are worth from $200 to $300 a pair.
Statement of Martin Mondy, of Vermilion county, Illinois.
The raising of horses and mules receives considerable attention in this section. The cost of raising, till three years old, is about $25. At that age they sell for from $75 to $130 a head.
Statement of Joseph C. Orth, of McClearfs Bluff, Wabash county,
Illinois.
The cost of raising horses to three years old is various. Many farmers raise them at a cost of less than $10 a year, depending upon wild pastures for food during the summer and nearly all the winter ; while others, who feed in the stable almost exclusively, raise them at a
24 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
cost of from $20 to $30 a year. I have no means of stating the cost of transportation to an Eastern or Southern market.
We have but few horses except the common breeds, and their value for labor is, of course, variable, often according to the manner in which they have been reared. I do not know of any imported or blood animals.
The cost of raising mules is still less than that of horses, and is governed by the same rule. At two years old, mules are generally considered capable of performing labor. Until within a few years but few could be found in our county. But a trial in raising them has shown that they are perhaps more profitable than any other kind of stock, eating less than the horse, and able to sustain themselves better upon wild pasture, as well as coming into market much sooner, one year at least, than the horse. A good mule, two or three years old, commands from $100 to $125.
Statement of A. J. Boone, of Lebanon, Boone county, Indiana.
Horses, at four or five years old, ordinarily sell for $75 to $125, and sometimes as high as $150, owing to the size and character and to the training of the animal, as well as the use for which they are desired. They are usually taken to Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Illinois.
Mules, at weaning time, sell for $30 to $40, and at two years old for $50 to $75. They are taken to Kentucky, and thence southward.
Statement of H. F. Moore, of Big Mound, Lee county, Iowa.
Mules, in this section, are the most profitable stock that we can raise. The average price of colts at six months old is $45 ; at two years $90 ; at three years $120 each.
Statement of Hugh M. Thomson, near Davenport, Scott county, Iowa.
Horses, with us, are as yet only raised for the home market. They are worth, at three years old, from $75 to $125 each, according to quality. Average value, $]00. At five or six years old they are . worth about one-sixth more than at three years. Value at one year old, $50 ; at two years, $75 ; and the cost of rearing to three years old, from $30 to $40. There are a very few pure bred animals in this part of the country, although we have many very valuable ones. The present high prices are drawing the attention of breeders to better and finer stock.
Good mules are worth a little more than horses, and, in most cases, can be raised at less expense.
Statement of Edward F. Garland, of Aroostook, (No. 11, range 5,) Aroostook county, Maine.
The breeding of horses is considerably attended to, and is thought
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 25
profitable by our farmers. Most of the farm labor is done by them. The price of horses varies from $75 to $200 each.
Statement of Francis Fuller, of Winthrop, Kennebec county, Maine.
The " Messenger" breed of horses has been much reared with us, and stands in high estimation among our farmers.
Colts at four months old, or weaning time, are worth from $20 to $25 ; at three years of age, from $70 to $100. They are a very un- certain animal to raise, being subject to more diseases and casualties than any other farm stock.
Statement of J. D. Yerkes, of Northville, Wayne county, Michigan.
The rearing of good horses has always been regarded by us as pro- fitable, although but few have been raised for exportation. The high prices obtained for horses during the last two years, however, have in- duced farmers to engage more extensively in raising them. Our horses are crosses of the "Messenger," "Duroc," and some other bloods upon our common stock, and are well suited either for farming purposes or the carriage.
The cost of raising a colt until four years old, all expenses included, is not far from $70. Its value at that age is from $130 to $150. Cost of transportation to New York by steamboat and railroad about $20.
Statement of H. L. Brown, of Fayette, Howard county, Missouri.
Mules can be raised at a better profit than any other animal in this section. This arises from several causes : They are at any time readily disposed of in lots, at fair remunerating prices. Besides, their great powers of endurance, almost entire exemption from all diseases, uni- form longevity, and early maturity on little and inferior food, combine to render them profitable and desirable stock. Price of a colt five months old, from $40 to $100 ; average, $50. Cost of raising till three years old, $30. At that age they are worth $110 each.
Statement of C. E. Potter, of Manchester, Hillsborough county, New
Hampshire.
Of horses, the "Black Hawk" and "Morgan" breeds are generally sought after and raised in this State, whenever preference is given to any particular sort. Among them there are excellent roadsters, the friends of both claiming superiority. Although the "Black Hawks," perhaps, may be the fleetest ; take them for "all work," the "Mor- gans" are the best stock for New England. They are intelligent compact in form, yet graceful in their movement, spirited in action, full of nerve, remarkably tractable, but not viciously inclined ; in one word, the "Morgan" is just the horse for the gentleman or farmer, who, of
26 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
necessity, needs an animal fitted for the road or farm, a doer of all kinds of light labor, and occasionally put to a heavier draught.
A colt at four years old costs, iu this section, $100 ; and at that age oftener brings less than this amount than more.
Statement of Norman H. Allen, of Persia, near Gowanda, Cattaraugus
count"*, New York*
But little attention is paid to raising horses in this county. It costs abo it $10 to keep a colt the first year ; $15 for the second ; and $20 for the third. A colt at four months old will sell from $15 to $25 ; at sixteen months, from $20 to $40 ; at two years, from $30 to $60 ; and at three years, from $50 to $100. A pair of good, well matched horses, at six years old, will sell from $200 to $500.
Statement o/Teter Reid, Lake Post Office, Greenwich, Washington county t
New York.
The raising of horses in this county is rapidly advancing, and is at- tended with marked success. The "Morgan" and "Black Hawk" breeds are the general favorites.
Statement of S. A. Collins, of Sodus, Wayne county, New York.
We have some fair horses of the "Morgan" blood. Colts at three years of age are worth from $75 to $125, according to quality. Cost of rais- ing till three years old, not far from $40. Our horses, I think, are im- proving from year to year.
Statement of D. C. M. Evans, of Scio, Harrison county, Ohio.
The present high prices obtained for horses have induced many to engage in raising them. A good four-year-old horse brings from $120 to $] 60. The expense of driving them to the Atlantic markets is about $10 a head. The cost of raising till four years old,
Statement of C. Jacobs, of Dayton, Yam Hill county, Oregon.
Until within a few years past no effort was made to improve our ordinary, or Spanish horse. Now, however, we are not only improving the race, but have introduced the pure American or English breeds. The cost of raising the latter till three years old varies from $20 to $40 a head. At that age they bring, in market, from $100 to $150 each. The cost of raising the crosses of the American and Spanish bloods is less by one-half than that of the pure bloods, because the mothers are allowed to run at large upon the wild pasture lands, and but little at- tention is paid to the colts till the season arrives for "haltering" and taming, that is, at the age of three years. They are then sold, princi- pally for farm use, at from $60 to $80 each.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 27
Statement of George Buchanan, Samuel Gilliland, James T. Hale, David Duncan, and William P. Fisher, being that portion of their report which relates to horses, addressed to the Centre County Agricultural Society of Pennsylvania.
Of late years the raising of good horses is regarded by us as a pro- fitable business. Colts at six months old will bring $40, and if they are very large and well proportioned they will sell for $50 or $60. The cost of raising until six months old does not exceed $15. When they arrive at the age of three years their cost is not more than $60, and the average value at that age is not less than $100, when they are strong enough to pay for their keeping by labor. At five or six yearsof age a medium-sized draught horse is worth $130, and if extra large he will command a much higher price. The horses used here for mining purposes are nearly all of heavy draught, and are much sought after by the drovers from the East.
Mules are not raised here, and are seldom used, except about iron works, where they are found to answer better than horses. They will stand harder treatment and coarser fare. They are mostly brought from Kentucky, and command as high prices as horses.
Statement of Zeno P. Walker, of Egypt, Wharton county, Texas.
This is not a favorable region, in my opinion, for raising blooded horses. This may be on account of the mode of treatment. But I believe it requires a more elevated region and a dryer atmosphere than are afforded by our coast to give them a vigorous constitution. They are subject to the " Spanish lever," from the effects of which they sel- dom entirely recover. __
Statement of William Smoot, of Boone Court House, Virginia.
Of all the animals we have, the mule would be the most profitable, if our farmers would turn their attention to rearing these animals. There are a few raised in the county of Kanawha, worth from $50 to $75 each, at from twelve to eighteen months old. It costs no more to raise a mule than a steer, and the former will bring three times as much as the latter at the same age.
Statement of Dr. Henry M. Price, of Nicholas Court House, Virginia.
A good many horses of a fine quality are raised here for market. Those known as the " Greenbrier" breed are regarded as the best. Cost of raising to four years old about $50 each. They sell from $90 to $150.
Mules are more profitable than horses. Cost of raising to two years old about $12 each. They are worth from $60 to $100 each.
28 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
SHEEP AND WOOL.
HISTORY AND MANAGEMENT OF MERINO SHEEP.
BY GEO. CAMPBELL, OF WESTMINSTER WEST, WINDHAM COUNTY, VT.
The introduction of Merino sheep into the United States formed an era from which we may date much of our present thrift and prosperity. Chancellor Livingston, of New York, foresaw at an early day the im- mense advantages that would result to our country from their introduc- tion, and to him belongs the honor of one of the earlier importations. In his "Essay on Sheep," published in 1809, he says : "I shall not envy the glory of the Argonauts if I can successfully plant the Merinos of Spain in my native land." A little *lime subsequent Colonel Humph- ry sent a small flock from Spain to Connecticut ; but to the Hon. Wm. Jarvis, the farmers of Vermont are mainly indebted for his invaluable importations, and I will hazard nothing in saying that no foreign minis- ter nor other agent has ever been instrumental in accomplishing so much good to the country as did Mr. Jarvis in his consular mission to Spain.
Future Prospects of Wool-growing in Vermont. — The number of sheep in our State has been diminishing for several years. The low and fluctuating price of wool has contributed to bring about this result. Under the impression that the great West would produce wool to such an extent as would depress the price so low that competition would be impossible, many of our farmers prematurely disposed of their flocks ; but the present high prices of sheep and wool show conclusively that the former depression was not mainly in consequence of an increased production in our Western States, other causes having contributed to that result. The rapid increase of our population, the increased de- mand for wool and woolen goods, so indispensably necessary to the health and comfort of the inhabitants in all parts of our country, and the increase of our woolen manufactories, will all contribute to in- crease the future demand. The West and South will continue to in- crease in the production of wool, and we may and should expect that it will come in competition with the wool produced in the older States ; but whoever understands the genius of the inhabitants of our trans- Alleghany States, and knows how difficult it is to introduce a new branch of husbandry, even admitting that the soil and climate are as favorable for the production of fine wool, will see that ruinous compe- tition from this source is yet a long way in the future. Again, it should be remembered, in connexion with the prospective demand and supply of wool, that on the continent of Europe almost universally its produc- tion has been at its maximum, and in future must be on the decline. With a favorable climate and grazing facilities peculiarly adapted to the purpose, if our farmers cannot grow fine wool profitably I would ask what can they grow ? Surely in the production of beef, pork, and grain we shall not be less liable to competition from our Western neigh- bors. Another consideration should have its due weight with the wool-
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 29
growers of our State. It will be conceded, I think, that the Merino has attained a higher degree of perfection in this than in any of our sister States. Indeed, I verily believe our best bred flocks are improv- ed from the original importations from Spain. Soil, climate, and skill in breeding have all contributed towards giving us a wide reputation for our superior sheep. The long cold winters incident to our State, which are considered the main objection to the profitable production of wool, may, I imagine, give us an advantage over our competitors in a milder climate. The natural law in the animal economy that the covering of an animal will adapt itself to the temperature of the region where it resides will undoubtedly hold true in this case. The thick heavy- wooled Merino of Vermont, bred in a more southern latitude, will gradually diminish its now unnecessary coverings, and the off- spring, after a few generations, will exhibit those desirable points in a less marked degree. Hence, in the future, as now, we may confidently rely upon a market for our surplus stock for breeding purposes at re- munerating prices. Impressed with these views of the subject, we may anticipate for a long series of years a good degree of prosperity for the wool-growers of our State.
The Race of Sheep best adapted to Wool-growing. — For the profitable production of wool, the Merinos stand pre-eminent. Their superiority on this point, over the common and English breeds among us, requires no argument. The so-called " Saxony sheep," although belonging to the Merino family, from the delicacy of their organization, and lightness of fleece, are not well suited to our climate. There are three varieties of the Merino now bred in our State, namely : Spanish, French, and Silesian, and the respective claims of each to precedence are not yet fully settled. They are all the descendants of the Merinos of Spain, having been removed from that country at a period when their flocks were in the highest degree of perfection. At that time there were several families known as the " Paular," " Infantado," " Negreti," "Escurial," " Montarco," &c, each differing in many prominent points, but all possessing valuable fleeces. These sub-varieties, with few ex- ceptions, have been amalgamated, both in this country and in France. The Spanish Merinos, or more properly the American Merinos, as they now exist, are the descendants of the importations of Mr. Jar vis and others, and have been bred in this country upwards of forty years ; and it is a matter of deep regret that so few of these truly valuable animals have been preserved in a pure state. At one time, in conse- quence of crossing with the Saxons, and gross carelessness in breed- ing, the pure Merino blood became almost extinct ; but fortunately for the country generally, and particularly fortunate for those whose fore- sight enabled them to estimate the future demand, a few flocks of these sheep have been preserved from the general ruin of their purity. In speaking of the comparative merits of the several varieties, let it be understood that reference will be had only to the best bred flocks under consideration. Their points of excellence are too well known to need a particular description at this time.
History of the French Merinos. — This variety, originally from Spain, was exported from thence some twenty-five years prior to the period of their introduction into the United States, under the patronage of
30 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
Louis XVI. By permission of the king, four hundred rams and ewes were selected from the finest flocks in Spain, and arrived in France in 1786. These consisted of the several sub-varieties, before referred to, and their amalgamation formed the basis from which have originated the French sheep recently imported into this country. Their purity of blood will not be questioned by those conversant with their subsequent history. Nearly seventy years have elapsed since their introduction into France, and they now form a distinct variety, differing materially from the original stock, showing in a remarkable degree the change which skilful breeders can effect in the organization of domestic ani- mals. Their size and weight of fleece have nearly doubled ; they are more docile, and less inclined to range over a wide territory ; their pro- pensity to fatten is increased, and in fact, they are more completely domesticated than their ancestors. The following description is given by a gentleman who has had considerable experience in breeding them : " These sheep are of unusual size, and possess, to a remarkable degree, the qualities desirable in sheep for mutton and wool-growing purposes. They are completely covered with a long, thick, and fine staple of wool. Many of these sheep are encircled with large folds of loose skin around their necks and shoulders, giving a greater surface for the growth of wool. They have strong and hardy constitutions, are very prolific, and as the ewes are excellent nurses, there is no difficulty in raising their lambs."
From a careful examination of this variety in France, and from sev- eral years' experience in breeding them in this country, I feel confident in the conclusion that they will prove a varuable acquisition. It is be- lieved that they will yield a greater profit in wool and mutton com- bined, than the coarse-wooled English breeds, and that they will ulti- mately be substituted for them. The fact, however, should not be concealed that, in some cases where rams of this class have been crossed with the old stock of Spanish ewes, the offspring have not, in all respects, proved satisfactory ; and in some cases the full-blooded imported stock has not come up to the high expectations of the pur- chaser. From this cause, in part, a prejudice exists, to some extent, against this variety. The seller, influenced from motives of pecuniary gain, has, undoubtedly, in many cases, greatly over estimated their good qualities, and the buyer has formed a higher opinion of their wool- growing capacities than could reasonably be expected from anything belonging to the ovine race. Let it be remembered that the larger breeds of domestic animals require more liberal feeding ; that their good proportions will not be so perfectly developed upon short pas- tures and scanty winter-feeding as those of a smaller, or medium size. It should also be remembered that these sheep, previous to their impor- tation into this country, received liberal feeding, and had been under the watchful care of the shepherd and his dog, and are, consequently, less qualified than our naturalized breeds to seek their subsistence over a wide range of short pasture. These circumstances will explain, in most cases, the cause of disappointment. The farmer who is favora- bly situated for the sale of mutton, and can furnish good summer pas- ture and liberal winter feeding, will find this variety of the Merino
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 31
valuable, and will realize, in the form of a valuable fleece and a large carcass, a handsome return for the fodder consumed.
History of the Silesian Merinos. — These are of a more recent importa- tion, and are less known to the public than any of the three varieties. The first importation of this kind reached New York in May, 1851, and was personally selected by the writer, with whom was associated, as a partner, William Chamberlain, of New York. Like the other Meri- nos, originally from Spain, they were exported from thence into Ger- many, in 1811, since which time they have been in the care of a most skilful breeder, who is also a gentleman of high scientific attainments, but ardently devoted to the improvement of his flocks. Unlike most of the German breeders, he has avoided the error of sacrificing all other considerations to the quality of the staple. The sheep of the German States generally are of the Saxon variety of the Merino, and would not meet with countenance from the wool-growers of New England.
The flock in question was bred purely from the Infantado Negreti family, of which fact the gentleman was able to furnish us with un- doubted evidence; and it is confidently believed that another pure bred Negreti flock does not exist. They presented to the observer that uniformity of appearance and sameness which is a prima-facie evi- dence of purity of blood and skill in breeding. After satisfactory ex- amination, I am confident in the conclusion that selections from this flock would supply an existing want, and prove acceptable to a large class of wool-growers in our own country. Subsequent events have justified the correctness of the conclusion, and additional shipments have been necessary to supply the demand.
The ewes of this variety are nearly faultless in shape ; the rams are- less perfect in this respect previous to maturity. They are thickly- covered with a compact and exceeding fine growth of wool, holding its evenness and thickness over the entire pelt in a remarkable degree ;. are of a medium size, the ewes weighing at maturity from 80 to 100- pounds, and the rams from 100 to 150 pounds. The weight of fleece is about the same as the best Spanish flocks, but the length of staple is not quite so long, but more compact. The natural oil is sufficiently abundant to give them the desirable dark surface, but, unlike some of" the Spanish, it is wholly removed by washing in cold water. The off- spring resulting from the union of these rams with the common Spanish ewes have proved more than satisfactory to those who have made the cross, the quantity of wool having been considerably increased, and the quality much improved from the original stock.
In concluding this description, the facts will warrant me in saying that, as to purity of blood, they stand pre-eminent. The other two varieties, although of pure Merino blood, are yet the offspring resulting from a union of the sub-varieties before referred to. For the profitable production of the finest grade of wool, the Silesians are unequalled. But, it may be asked, which of these varieties, all things considered, are the best adapted to the mass of wool-growers? The question does not admit of a direct answer. The individual circumstances of each farmer must be taken into the account, and his location, conveniences for keeping a large or small number, and the nature of his pastures, must have their due weight in deciding the question.
32 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
The Size of Sheep best adapted to Wool-growing. — Size, in itself, within certain limits, is not a matter of so much importance. It is conceded that animals of the same species require at maturity an amount of food in proportion to their live weight. This doctrine needs confirmation. I apprehend numerous exceptions would be found to exist. The object of the wool-grower is to breed that size which will yield the most profit from a given amount of fodder. Without any positive evidence, it would be reasonable to suppose that two sheep weighing 100 pounds each, would produce more wool than one of 200 pounds, and that the two would also consume more fodder. A diminutive size should be avoided, as indicative of a defective constitution, and the lambs of such, being delicate, are raised with more difficulty. The size best adapted to the majority of farmers of this State should not vary much from 100 pounds when in good condition.
Proper Course of Breeding. — Our best breeds of domestic animals owe their existence solely to a long system of judicious breeding. The origin of the Merino sheep is not definitely known, and it will be suffi- cient for our present purpose to say that it now has hardly a shade of resemblance to its former type. This entire change in its organization is the result of care and attention, or, in other words, a proper course of breeding. The most perfect specimens, if left entirely to themselves, would undoubtedly, in a great measure, regain their former character- istics after a lapse of years, provided they could survive the transition. Let this fact be impressed upon the mind, that a judicious system of breeding is an incessant contest with the natural tendency of the ani- mal to regain its former type. Under this view of the subject, it will readily be comprehended how soon the improvement effected in a long life of skilful management may be mainly lost by a few years inatten- tion and neglect.
In order to effect a real improvement in a breed of sheep, it requires
on the part of the breeder years of patient effort and close attention,
with a fixed purpose to accomplish the end in view ; and, in addition
to this, let him cultivate, if he does not already possess, an absorbing
attention to his flocks. Are his sheep coarse wooled ? Are they light
shearers? Are they under size? Are they defective in form and
wanting in natural oil ? The skilful breeder will be able to remedy
these defects even without going out of his own flocks ; but this, in all
cases, will require too long a time, and hence, in most cases, he will find
it for his own interest to borrow some improvements from his neighbor's
flocks. The farmer who has now an indifferent flock, or who is about
to commence the business of wool-growing, will not be able, in most
instances, to incur the expense of procuring a flock of thorough bred
ewes, unless he can rely mainly upon the sale of the offspring for
breeding purposes. The great majority of farmers depend upon the
wool and carcass for their profits. Hence it will be desirable to
start with a good stock of ewes, which may be purchased at such prices
as the profit of wool will warrant him in paying. The improvement
which he will now be able to effect upon them will depend in a great
measure upon the judicious choice of males. Weight of fleece, fineness
of staple, combined with a good shape and vigorous constitution, are
points which are indispensable in a thorough-bred flock. The selection
* ■■' DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 33
of males should be made from none but thorough-bred flocks, such as have maintained for a series of 3Tears a fixed character for evenness, fineness, and weight of fleece, and uniformity of shape. However we may regard the pride of a noble ancestry in the human species, it is certainly excusable in the breeding of domestic animals. The male himself should possess a high degree of constitutional vigor, a bright, lively, intelligent countenance, and should have a good share of what in the human species is called force of character. Such animals, I ap- prehend, are more likely to transmit their own peculiarities to their offspring. There should not be too great a difference in the size of the sire and dam. If the ewes are under size it will be desirable to use a ram the offspring of which would be somewhat larger than the original stock. The coupling of very large rams with small ewes is contrary to the laws of nature, and the progeny will not generally be satisfac- tory. If the selection of the ram has been judicious, the first lot of lambs will indicate a good degree of improvement. Let the most per- fect lambs be reserved for breeding, and the defective ones be dis- carded. This elective or " training-up " process should be rigidly followed up in the succeeding generations. If the selection of the ram has been injudicious, and the lambs are defective in the points essential for good sheep, he should be at once rejected. No farmer can afford to breed from such an animal. The breeder who has already made considerable improvement, or has a thorough-bred flock, should by all means make a test before using any ram wTith his whole flock. A few ewes should be served by him, and if the offspring prove satisfactory, or otherwise, he will be able to determine upon the propriet}7 of making further use of him. Ewes possessing any defect should not be served by rams having the same fault. Hence it will be found advisable to have several rams, in order to make desirable crosses, as even in the most thorough-bred flocks there will exist a slight difference in shape, quality, length of wool, &c.
The management of rams during the tupping season is a matter of importance. The majority of wool-growers are greatly in fault upon this point. The practice of allowing rams to run at large with ewes has generally prevailed, and in many instances he receives no addi- tional feed aside from the rest of the flock. When the number of eAves to be served is small this practice is not so objectionable, but in large flocks it is absolutely essential to success, that a different course of management be adopted; but a matter of more vital importance is that he should be managed in such a manner as to keep his procreative organs in a vigorous state. If allowed to run at large with the flock, even if fed with grain in such a manner as to keep up a good degree of flesh and muscular strength, the too frequent and useless copulative act will assuredly induce a debility of the genital organs, the result of which will be a feeble offspring, and the valuable points in the male will be less liable to be transmitted to the young. He should not be too fat ; for this condition, like the other extreme, will impair his capacity for service, and is often the occasion of incompetency.
The amount of service which rams will be able to perform cannot be definitely stated, as some will perform double that of others. The old Spanish rule was to allow four rams to one hundred ewes. The 3
34 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
German breeders usually allow one to about thirty ewes, and let them run at large. The following plan will enable the breeder to husband the resources of the ram, and he will thus be able to beget a much larger number of lambs: Let him be kept in some suitable pen in the sheepfold, by himself, or if uneasy, place him with a tame wether or ewe. The ewes should be brought into the fold every day, and a "teaser" should be employed to find those ready for service. As fast as they are found, they should be put into a pen by themselves, which should previously be prepared for the purpose. After selecting all that are ready for service, the balance of the flock should be taken away. This being done, the ram should be allowed the service of one ewe, and only one connection, and should be returned to his apartment. The ewes should all be served during the day, dividing the time be- tween service by the number to be served. This procedure should be continued daily during the tupping season, and a definite record of each day's service should be made for future reference, noting the number of the ewe, the day of service, and the ram used. The advantages of adopting this plan are — first, the ram is at all times in a good copu- lating condition, and will be able to serve a larger number of ewes; second, the lambs are dropped strong and healthy; third, the breeder will be enabled to remedy slight defects by proper coupling; and fourth, it has been the writer's experience that this course will insure a larger proportion of ewe lambs, which is generally considered desirable. The proper care and management of the breeding ewes will also contribute in no small degree to the ultimate success of the flock. No ewe should be allowed to breed until she has arrived to maturity, which, in the Merino breed, will not be until three years old. If allowed to breed before this, the ewe herself will not only be injured, but if such a course is continued for several generations, the offspring will become feeble in constitution, and a dwarfish race will be the result. The ewes should have a liberal amount of feed during the suckling period, in order that the lambs may be able to make good growth without exhausting their dams. After weaning, as soon as their milk is sufficiently dried, they should be put into good pastures, in order that they may become fully recruited before receiving the male again. During pregnancy they should receive suitable feed and that kind attention which their circum- stances demand.
Winter Management of Sheep. — Much of the success of the wool-grower depends upon the winter management of his flock. Sheep are animals which pay their owners better for good care and keeping than an}7- other stock usually kept on a farm; but if fed with a stingy hand, or ne- glected, if suitable conveniences are wanting, they pay perhaps as poorly as any. The annual loss to the United States, resulting from a want of suitable sheds and other conveniences for the winter accom- modation of sheep, is immense. The promptings of self-interest would seem sufficient to induce our farmers to adopt a better system of winter management. No intelligent farmer at this day will attempt to deny the piinciple that warm enclosures are an equivalent, to a certain ex- tent, for food ; a variety of well-conducted experiments have conclu- sively demonstrated the fact. A large proportion of food consumed in winter is required for keeping up the animal heat, and consequently,
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 35
In proportion as the apartments are warm, within certain limits, the less amount of food will be required. The other extreme, too close apart- ments, would be objectionable from the impurity of the air, and should be avoided. Sheep have very little reason to fear injury from this cause. The majority of those in our State suffer for the want of shelter, and a suitable quantity and variety in their winter food. Many flocks are brought to their winter quarters in fair condition, but are fed so sparingly that the growth of their wool is almost wholly arrested during the winter season, the fodder given them being only sufficient to sustain the vital fuctions. Under such circumstances the food consumed by them is in fact nearly lost. The owner has received no return in the increase of wool nor in bodily weight ; and he will suffer further from a large per cent, of actual deaths before the time of shearing.
With such a course of management the profits of wool-growing will necessarily be small. If neither self-interest nor the feelings of hu- manity will induce the farmer to provide properly for his dependent flock, he will find it for his advantage to keep some other domestic animal, and I know of nothing more suitable for such men than the hardy goat. While I protest against the starving system, it would seem hardly necessary to caution farmers against the opposite extreme, too high feeding, wThich is also detrimental to the health and long life of the animal. While preparing sheep for the butcher, high feeding is necessary and proper, but for store sheep and breeding ewes an over amount of fat, produced by high keeping, is decidedly injurious ; and, aside from the attending expense to produce this state of things, it has a tendency to shorten the lives of the sheep and enfeeble the offspring. The forcing system of feeding brings animals to maturity early, but is productive of premature death.
The proper and the most profitable mode of feeding, for breeding and store sheep, is that which will develop in them the highest degree of bodily vigor. Sheep fed in this manner would endure the fatigue of a long journey, while those high fed would fail from the excess of fat, and the scantily fed from muscular debility. Every wool-grower will find it for his interest to provide warm, capacious, and well ven- tilated sheds for his flocks, with a convenient access to pure water. The feeding racks should be made with good tight bottoms, in order that the chaff and seed, the most valuable part of the hay, may not be lost. Such racks will also answer for feeding out roots and grain, and will avoid the necessity of having an extra lot of troughs for that pur- pose.
The different ages and classes of sheep should be properly assorted. This classification, however, must be left to the judgment of the breeder. The size of his flock and his conveniences for keeping will determine the extent of the classification. It will be necessary, in all flocks of considerable size, to place the strong and the feeble in sepa- rate flocks. The breeding ewes should constitute another division, and- so on with the lambs, keeping each class and age by themselves.
In regard to the question, How often should sheep be fed? a differ- ence of opinion among good managers exists. While one believes that twice a day is sufficient, another thinks it desirable to feed three or four times; but the most important point, I apprehend, is to feed regu-
36 AGRICTLTUTAL REPORT.
larly, whether twice, three, or four times a day. The writer feeds, at present, hay twice one day ; the next, hay in the morning and straw at night, and so on, giving hay and straw alternately instead of hay; and, aside from the above, a feed of roots and grain is allowed at mid-day, allowing a half bushel of corn and cob, or oatmeal mixed with two bushels of roots to the one hundred head. As sheep are fond of a va- riety of food, it is desirable to make as many changes as practicable. If allowed constant access to pine or hemlock boughs through the win- ter, it will be conducive to their health. Salt is also equally as essen- tial in winter as in summer, and should be kept constantly by them. Rock salt, which is imported in large lumps, weighing from 20 to 50 pounds each, is the cheapest and best. Sheep are not liable to eat it in sufficient quantities as to ever injure them, as they can only get it by licking.
Winter Lambs and their Management. — There is no difficulty in rear- ing lambs in the winter season, provided the ewes have been well kept, and have a warm, convenient place for their accommodation, and are properly fed while suckling. There should be prepared, pre- vious to the lambing period, several small pens, about three feet square, with a convenient place for feeding. As soon as the lamb is dropped, it should be placed with its dam in one of these pens, and there allowed to remain until it is sufficiently strong to be removed to a larger apart- ment, which will usually be at the age of two days ; but, previous to the removal, the lamb should be numbered corresponding to the dam, as the writer believes all good shepherds will have their flocks perma- nently numbered. This being done, several sheep and their lambs may be allowed to run together, and the small pens again occupied by sheep having young lambs. At the age of two or three weeks, the lambs will need to be fed with roots, oats, wheat bran, &c, for which purpose it will be necessary to have a small pen, adjoining their dams', where they can be kept by themselves, and their food placed in small troughs easy of access and protected so as to keep their food clean, and there will be no farther trouble, aside from the annoyance of their bleating for the first few days. They should be allowed the teat three times a day until they are about six weeks old, after which twice is sufficient, and near the time of weaning once a day is all that is ne- cessary.
There are several advantages arising from separating the lambs from their mothers while quite young: first, they wTill grow faster as they learn to eat much sooner, and can always have a sup- ply of oats, bran, &c, kept by them, which could not well be done if allowed to remain with their dams ; second, the lambs are prevented from getting into the racks and damaging the hay, as is al- ways the case if permitted to remain together the whole time ; third, it is not uncommon for the lambs to acquire the habit of picking and eating small locks of wool from the legs and thighs of their dams, which is avoided by making the separation. Aside from the above considerations, the lambs soon become gentle, which is of some im- portance to the flock-master. By adopting a course similar to the above, lambs may be raised in winter that will be as healthy and thrifty as those dropped in April or May.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 37
Summer Management. — Provided the flock has received proper care during the winter, little fear need be entertained of any considerable loss by death in the change from hay to grass. The change, however, should be gradual. As soon as the ground gets bare, and the new grass begins to grow, the flock should be allowed to go to pasture a portion of the day, and the balance of food should be supplied in the lorm of grain or good hay. A sudden change from hay to a vigorous growth of green pasture would produce serious injury to the whole flock, and should by all means be avoided. Previous to turning them finally to pasture, the fences should be put in good order ; and a supply of rock or common salt should be constantly kept in some suitable place, con- venient of access. If the ewes have not already yeaned their lambs, they should be brought to the fold at night and receive such additional feed as their circumstances demand.
The time for washing and shearing in Vermont is usually in the month of June. This is a matter of importance, and should be at- tended to as soon as the weather is sufficiently warm. Sheep in this operation, as well as in all others, should be carefully handled. The washing should be done in a thorough manner. If effectually wet by a soaking rain, it will be a favorable time to commence the operation ; otherwise, the sheep should be wet by plunging them into the water, and after standing in the sunshine an hour or so, they should be taken into deep water where there is a clear gravelly bottom. A spout con- veying a good stream of water, with at least four feet fall, should be brought to bear upon all parts of the fleece until the water runs per- fectly clear from all parts of the body. Previous to shearing, they should run from five to eight days in a clean pasture.
The above is the proper mode of preparing wool for market, and is that which the writer has practised until the two seasons last. The propriety of washing the fleece upon the back of the sheep is a point about which there is an honest difference of opinion among wool- growers. The practice has, for its support, the weight of ancient usage ; but at the same time is liable to serious objections. It will not be denied that sheep often suffer more or less injury, and sometimes even death from exposures incident to the washing process. It is not here intended to discuss this matter at length, but I will state that for the last two years I have shorn a portion of my flock in the month of April and May, which would preclude the possibility of washing. Some of the reasons for early shearing may b^ stated : first, the sheep is relieved from a heavy burden of wool, and will suffer less from cold after the first of May, provided they are sheltered in rough weather, than from heat by wearing the fleece until the middle of June ; second, they will be better prepared for the cold of the succeeding winter ; third, those selecting sheep for breeding purposes will be better enabled to judge of the style and quality of the wool; fourthly, the farm work is less urgent at this period, and more attention can be given to mark- ing, numbering, and weighing, both sheep and wool. Sheep shorn thus early will require w^arm apartments for several days, and without such conveniences it will be proper to delay shearing until the usual time. During the summer season, considerable attention is due to the flock. Changing pastures once or twice a month contributes to the
38 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
health and thrift of the sheep. Tarring their noses should by no means be neglected, as this is a preventive against the fly, which causes the maggot in the head. This should be done at the time of shearing, and as often after as once in four weeks during the season.
Method of Marking or Numbering. — This is a matter of considerable importance, and should be properly done. A temporary marking may be made by stamping the initials of the owner's name upon the backs of the sheep with tar or black paint, which will enable the owner to distinguish his own from his neighbor's ; but aside from and in addition to this, it is absolutely essential in judicious breeding to adopt some convenient system of permanent marking whereby the breeder may be able to keep a definite history of the pedigree of every individual mem- ber of his flock. The practice of mutilating the ears to the extent adopted by some farmers should be avoided. The rams may very properly be numbered by burning the numbers into their horns.
The Germans have two methods of permanent numbering; one of which consists in cutting small notches in different parts of the ears, each notch indicating a definite number; the other in tattooing the num- bers in the inside of the ears. A description of these methods, with illustrations, may be found in the Patent Office Report for 1847, p. 279. I adopt the tattooing system, and thus avoid cutting the ears. In the right ear is placed, the regular number, while in the left are figures which denote in what year the lamb was yeaned, which readily shows the age of the sheep at all times. With this system of marking, and a proper method of registering, the sheep-breeder will be able to compete with the cattle-breeders in giving a long pedigree.
Docking Lambs. — This should be done previous to or at the time of shearing. The tail should be cut so as to allow the loose skin to pro- ject over the end of the bone in order to hasten the process of healing. In order to prevent excessive loss of blood it will be advisable to tie up the main artery of the tail. This process may be considered by many a foolish or unnecessary refinement, but be that as it may, I am willing to assume originality in the practice. Can a man in health loose three or four quarts of blood without injury? The loss of a few ounces will not prove less injurious to a young lamb. It is not unfrequent that death actually follows excessive loss of blood, but a much larger pro- portion will suffer an unnecessary shock to the constitution by the loss.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN SPAIN.
In the course of my sojourn in Spain, in 1833, 1 made it a point to -visit some of the sheep-walks, with the view of procuring such informa- tion from the shepherds relative to the management of the Merino as could be drawn from them. The result of those inquiries, together with other facts since obtained, are embodied in the following paper, -which, it is hoped, may prove of service to some of those who have embarked in this important branch of rural economy. D. J. B.
In Spain there are at present two domestic breeds of sheep, which differ widely from one another, both in their habits and in the proper- •ties of their wool. One kind has, for a long period, existed in the
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 39
warmer parts of that country, and is known by their long, coarse, hairy wool • and the other, which migrates every spring from the plains and valleys of Andalusia, Estremadura, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia to the cool mountains of Old Castile and Arragon, where they pass the summer and return again in autumn to feed, during winter, on the warm plains below. The latter, which includes the pure Merino, are distin- guished from the common sheep by a loose skin hanging from their necks, and in having wool on their foreheads and cheeks, and frequently down their legs nearly to their hoofs. The horns of the males are very large and ponderous, and are usually rolled laterally, one part over another. Their wool is long, fine and soft, and is twisted into glossy spiral ringlets. It naturally contains a large proportion of oil, to which dust and other impurities adhere, and give to the animals a dingy and unclean appearance that conveys to the casual observer an idea of in- feriority, but on parting it all doubts are immediately removed, when its unsullied purity and fineness are brought to view. There also exist in Spain several intermediate breeds, among which are the Pyrenean races, with remarkably fine wool, and somewhat resembling that on the South Downs of England. In general, they are polled, but some have horns, which turn behind the ears, and in the males project for- ward half a circle. Their legs, which are short, are white or reddish ; their faces speckled, and in some a small tuft of wool grows on their foreheads. Their color varies from white to a reddish yellow, and, in a few instances, the}^ are entirely black. There is also another race in Biscay, which have from four to six horns, but they are not of the fine-wooled variety.
The example of Columella, of importing African rams, was repeated by Don Pedro II., king of Arragon, in the early part of the thirteenth century, and afterwards by Cardinal Ximenes, prime minister of Spain; and to that epoch is to be ascribed the superiority of Merino wool over that of all other domestic breeds. With regard to the cause of this superiority, some impute it to the sheep passing their lives in the open air, in a dry and equable climate ; others to the nature of the soil and vegetation upon which they feed, and to their migrating semi-annually from one part of the country to another; and a third class, to the pecu- liar manner of smearing their backs at a certain period, a process here- after to be described; but it is most probable that they do not so much owe the fineness and quality of their wool to the reasons above assigned, as to the uniform, systematic, and unceasing care with which they are managed through every stage of their existence, and the pure, unmixed, and isolated condition in which each flock is kept from generation to generation. For it appears as a matter of certainty that the sole de- sign of removing these sheep from one district to another is to feed; and it is equally certain that these journeys never would be undertaken if a sufficiency of good pasturage could be found in one place during the year; and, besides, it is a noted fact that there are stationary flocks in the plains of Estremadura, where frost is seldom seen, and about the mountains of Old Castile, where snow often falls in June, both of which produce wool of an equal degree of fineness to that of the itinerant flocks that change their quarters every six months. It has been as- serted, and believed by some, although controverted by several well-
40 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.
informed persons, that regions abounding in aromatic plants are more favorable to the health of sheep, and consequently to the fineness of their wool, than those entirely destitute of such plants. Two instances, well supported, will perhaps be sufficient to refute this opinion. The territory of Montafla, in Old Castile, is one of the most elevated tracts in Spain, where the neighboring mountains rise in the atmosphere to aline of perpetual snow. Its hills consist of sandstone, covered with a deep clayey soil; black marble, marked with white and yellow veins; grey limestone, containing marine petrifactions, talc, gypsum, and numerous saline springs ; and in the plains and valleys emery abounds, both oc- curring in large blocks and incorporated in the soil. The soils of the mountains and hills are noted as being of a similar composition with the rocks beneath them ; and experience has taught the Spanish farmers that the sod which covers the limestone districts is best adapted to the growth of wheat and maize; that the clayey soil lying upon the sand- stone is stiff and difficult to till; and that the intermediate soils, resting upon mixed formations, are not very productive without the applica- tion of manure. The hills and plains of this region, which are desti- tute of aromatic plants, afford the finest of pasturage to numerous herds of sheep, cows, and horses, the latter two of which are fed on hay dur- ing the winter months, a very rare circumstance to occur in any part of Spain or the south of Europe generally. The other instance referred to is the territory adjacent to the town of Molina, in Arragon, which abounds in aromatic and odoriferous plants, and is celebrated for its good pasturage and fine flocks, yet their wool is of no better quality than that of the sheep of Montana, where no aromatic plants are to be found. The hills and mountains about Molina are composed of red and grey sandstone, limestone, gypsum of various colors and stages of decomposition, dark and ligh#-colored granite, intersected by numerous veins of lead, iron, and copper, the latter of which contains silver, sul- phur, and arsenic; and all the surrounding country is rich in springs from which large quantities of salt are annually made. Without digressing further from the subject, it may not be improper to state that the pas- tures of Spain are generally prolific in sweet grasses suitable for grazing, several of which are indigenous ; and others have been introduced from northern Africa, the East, and other parts of Europe.
That the quality of wool depends much upon climate there can be no doubt; for it is a well established law, that the wool of sheep, in the torrid zone, degenerates into a species of hair ; and in very cold, rigid ones, though fine near the roots, it becomes coarse toward the ends. Hence it is only in temperate latitudes where wool approaches to a state of perfection; and its fineness in the Merinos, doubtless, is owing, in a great measure, to their being able to pass their lives in the open air, free from the extremes of heat, cold, and moisture, common to some countries, and where their unobstructed but less abundant per- spiration is allowed to be swept away as fast as it flows. It is a re- markable fact, that all the sheep in Spain, which constantl}7" live in the open air, perpetuate their color and other properties to their progeny; and it is equally remarkable that the swine of that country, which run wild in the woods, arc invariably clothed in fine, curly, black hair;
DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 41
and hence the Spanish proverb, "Never did a Spanish hog's bristle pierce a shoe."
Classification of the Sheep, and haws regulating the Flocks. — The fine- wooled flocks of Spain, in the language of that country, are called " trashumantes," or travelling sheep, in contradistinction